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1、Explicit and Implicit Cognition and Knowledge Department of Psychology Chao-Ming Cheng General Introduction The Metacognition Approach to the Distinction Between Explicit and Implicit Cognition and Knowledge Explicit (Conscious) Cognition and Knowledge Conscious Non-Human Organisms? When Does Human
2、Become Conscious? Language, Consciousness, and Schizophrenia Implicit (Unconscious) Cognition and Knowledge Dissociation between Conscious and Unconscious Cognition and Knowledge Evidence for Unconscious Cognition and Knowledge Experimental Paradigms for Implicit Knowledge Figure 1. Formulation of e
3、mpirical research conducted by psychologists, as indicated by Arrows 1, 2, and 3 (see Nelson, 1996). External stimulus Criterion response (Objective assessment) Person “I think” (Introspection, Self-reports) 1 2 3 General Introduction Comtes Critiques: Introspection: unreliable Comtes paradox Liar p
4、aradox Hegels paradox Authority paradox Truth-value paradox “Thiss sentence contains threee errors.” Tarskis theory of truth (1956) Figure 2. Illustration of the hierarchical organization of meta- level and object-level, and the hypothesized flow of information in metacognition (Nelson, 1996). MODEL
5、 OBJECT-LEVEL MonitoringControl Flow of information META-LEVEL META-LEVEL OBJECT-LEVEL ControlMonitor Conscious Cognition Unconscious Cognition Input Figure 3. A human cognitive system. Conscious Cognition and Control Intentional learning Conscious memory (e.g., recall, recognition) Conscious percep
6、tion Unconscious Cognition and Control v Reflexive behavior v Instinctive behavior v Visceral control v Implicit perception (e.g., blind sight, agnosia, prosopagnosia) v Subliminal perception v Unconscious memory and Unconscious learning v Incidental learning v Latent learning v Automatic processing
7、 of motor or cognitive skills 病人的無意識心智 v 盲視(blindsight) (Weiskrantz et al., 1974; Weiskrantz, v 1986,1990) e. g. Pateint D. B. v 視覺失認症(visual agnosia)(Humphreys 1993; Warrington, 1984; 1985) e. g. Patient G. L. Patient H. J. A. v 臉形失認症(prosopagnosia)(Bauer, 1984) e. g. Patient L. F. v 失憶症(anterograd
8、e amnesia)(Warrington the other illustrated the solution to another problem. Results: Correct choice. Conscious Non-Human Organisms? Case 2: q Mirror-guided marked tests in chimps., monkeys, gibbons, orangutan (Gallup, 1970) q Exhibited behaviors: self-directed actions, touching the mark, self- reco
9、gnition, self-awareness? Figure 4. The animal mind. Case 3: Deception and the Machiavellian hypothesis: Can animals deliberately behave in such a way so as to mislead other animals into a state of false belief (Whiten these mechanisms in turn project back to the gate control system. The T cells proj
10、ect to the action system +, excitation; -, inhibition. (From Melzack, 1993). 2. Auditory and visual recognition DeCasper begin to discriminate between video recordings of themselves and of other children of the same age. leftrighta n front back Figure 6. The interaction between the left and right he
11、mispheres. Is language the key? PET studies on the task of verbal generation in superior temporal gyrus (STG) (Frith et al., 1995) Normal participants STG was activated by listening to spoken language, but inhibited during self-generated speech. Schizophrenic patients No such inhibition was recorded
12、 during PET scanning, suggesting that self-monitoring of speech signals is a key component of the disorder. Implications: Schizophrenia is a disorder of the interaction between the two hemispheres; there is a failure to establish unequivocal dominance. Normal inter-hemispheric integration: Inhibitio
13、n of any awareness by the verbally expressive hemispheric consciousness that it actually receives and sends thoughts, intentions, and feelings from and to another consciousness. In schizophrenia this integration is disturbed with the result that the LH consciousness becomes aware of an influence fro
14、m an “external” force, which in fact is the RH. Implicit (Unconscious) Cognition and Knowledge Dissociation between Conscious and Unconscious Cognition and Knowledge Evidence for Unconscious Cognition and Knowledge Experimental Paradigms for Implicit Learning Implicit (Unconscious) Cognition and Kno
15、wledge Implicit cognition and knowledge occurs when the processes by which information is acquired and the content of this information are unavailable to ones conscious awareness. Direct tests: Direct tests encourage performance on the basis of consciously available information. Indirect tests: Indi
16、rect tests avoid encouraging the use of conscious knowledge. Implicit learning is demonstrated when indirect tests reflect knowledge acquisition and direct tests do not. Figure 7. Number of articles published with implicit memory and implicit learning in their titles. 在辭典中共出現107次,第1筆到第35筆: 1. 【北口馬 】
17、 2. 【保馬法 】 3. 【保甲法 】 4. 【保久乳 】 5. 【保險法 】 6. 【保養廠 】 7. 【板起臉 】 8. 【補給品 】 9. 【跑解馬 】 10.【跑野馬 】 11.【普米語 】 12.【馬口鐵 】 13.【馬起臉 】 14.【馬祖島 】 15.【馬尾港 】 16.【馬尾藻 】 17.【滿可以 】 18.【莽古歹莽古歹 】 19.【米老鼠 】 20.【母老虎 】 21.【反打瓦反打瓦 】 22.【打粉底 】 23.【打底稿 】 24.【打體己 】 25.【打緊板 】 26.【打槳桿 】 27.【打診法 】 28.【打水鼓 】 29.【打野火 】 30.【膽小鬼 】 31.
18、【點點點點點點 】 32.【點檢所 】 33.【討老腳 】 34.【討野火 】 35.【李總統府 】 36.【打軟腿兒 】 文章要分段,將材料依順序排 列,使內容有組織,讀起來才為條 理清楚。 由很多段落組成一篇完整的文 章,惡些段落,就叫做文章的結 構,依照古人的說法,一篇文章 的結構應該要有下列四段,每一段 都有不同的功用。 起:文章的開頭。 承:開頭之後,敘述所要寫的材料 。 轉:材料的擴充、轉向、舉例等 ,是分量較多的地方。 合:文章的結束。 文章的結構 文章要分成許多段,一段接一 段,把要說的話說完,才會成為一 篇好的作文。 三年級的作文,通常分成三段 或四段即可。以下分開說明: (
19、一)分成三段來寫文章,把 內容分成先說、再說、 後說三部份,如果要寫的內容比 較多,可以把再說分成幾個小 節來寫。例如:第六課的課文分成 三段,其中的第二段分成三個小節 來寫。 (二)分成四段來寫的文章, 把內容分成先說、再說、 進一步說、後說四部份。 例如:第二課和第四課的課文,都 是分成四段來寫的文章。 文章有好的分段,讀起來清楚 明白,就會是一篇好文章。 說說看:第一課桃花開了 的課文,如果分成三段,你要怎麼 分?如果分成四段,你要怎麼分? 如何作文 Figure 8. Stimulus material used in the age estimation study (Is this
20、 man 25 or 35 years old?). Note that the quality of the picture is deliberately low to hide details (texture of skin etc.). Figure 9. Stimulus material used in the age estimation study (Is this woman more than 25 years old?) Note that the quality of the picture is deliberately low to hide details (t
21、exture of skin etc.). Two Types of Language Learning: Conscious and Unconscious Krashen (1981) First language: Acquisition, mostly unconscious Second language: Learning, conscious Figure 10. Examples of Chinese characters, pseudocharacters, and noncharacters. CHARACTER PSEUDOCHARACTER NONCHARACTER I
22、mplicit processes in medical diagnosis The acute abdominal pain perforated ulcer, appendicitis, bowel obstruction, dyspepsia, diverticular disease, cholecystitis, pancreatitis, or renal colic. Diagnosis in motor mechanics, system analyst, football coaches Three possibilities: Basic science knowledge
23、 is only important for beginners. As expertise develops, clinical achmen replaces biomedical knowledge in medical decision making. Experts do not forget biomedical knowledge, they just do use it in diagnostic decision making. Basic science knowledge becomes implicit and is used automatically; it is
24、implicit, expert clinicians are not aware that they are using this knowledge and, therefore, they do not verbalize it. The paradox of experts: There is a major bottleneck in the process of experts imparting their expertise to others. There is a difference between what experts say they do and what th
25、ey actually do; they are often unaware of the nature of their secrets (expertise). They actually do not know how they do what they do. Methodological problems: Interview with experts (knowledge engineering; MYCIN, NEOMYCIN). The expertise may be context-sensitive, and so will not be accessed in the
26、interview situations. Experimental Paradigms for Implicit Learning Artificial grammar learning Learning in the control of dynamic systems Serial (sequence) learning Covariation learning Figure 11. Artificial grammar learning (Reber, 1967, 1969, 1976; Figure 11. Artificial grammar learning (Reber, 19
27、67, 1969, 1976; Reber & Allen, 1978).Reber & Allen, 1978). Testing stimuli (grammatical) PTTTVPS PVV TXS S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 P T X V X S V in out P S T Learning stimuli PVPXVPS TSSXXVPS TSXS (not grammatical) PVTVV TSSXXVSS PTTPS Figure 12. Covariation learning (Lewicki, Hill, & Sasaki, 1989) Material
28、s: Simulated brain scans (i.e., patterns of randomly distributed computer graphics characters resembling the shape of a brain). Task: Learning phase: For each brain scan, subjects were informed whether it was form an intelligent or a nonintelligent person. The scans of the two groups differed only i
29、n a tiny detail: A certain graphics character occurred in the scans of one group with a frequency of 13% and that of the other group with a frequency of 17%. Test phase: Subjects had to rate the intelligence of new brain scans. Results: Subjects performed correctly, but they were not aware of the co
30、variation. Learning in the control of dynamic system (Berry & Broadbent, 1984) Task : Production of a stimulated sugar factory. Independent variable : Number of workers employed (W). Dependent variable: The amount of sugar produced (P) Pt = 2Wt - Pt 1 + rt where t is the number of trial, rt is the r
31、andom component at t. Task: Participants were required to choose the W in such a way that the production reached and maintain a prescribed target value. Serial learning tasks (Nissen & Bullemer, 19870) 1 2 3 4 Regular sequence: 10 sequential locations were cyclically repeated e.g. 4231324321/4231324321/4231324321 Ransom sequence: the locations were randomly permuted, with no position appearing twice in a row. 事件記憶 (短期) 事件記憶 (短期) 注意與辨識 感覺訊息的登錄 知識系統 表徵 整合 認知策略系統 學習與記憶 思考與解題 自我監控系統 監測 控制 有限的訊息傳遞系統 一個人類認知系統的模式
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