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1、Innovative Solutions in Steel: Open-Deck Parking Structures Cover Photo Tufts Health Plan Facility Watertown, MA 1,400 spaces HybridTMParking Solutions, LLC. Allegheny General Hospital Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 1,100 spaces Copyright 2003 AISC Marketing LLC. Innovative Solutions in Steel: Open-Deck P
2、arking Structures by: Emile Troup, P.E. and John Cross, P.E. 3 Page EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 5 SECTION 1AN INTRODUCTION TO OPEN-DECK PARKING STRUCTURES 7 PARKING STRUCTURESAN INTRODUCTION 7 1.1The Advantages of Steel-Framed Parking Structures 7 1.2Background of Steel-Framed Parking Structures9 1.3Managemen
3、t and Technical Issues in the Design and Maintenance of Parking Structures10 1.4Specifying a Steel-Framed Parking Structure11 SECTION 2GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR OPEN-DECK PARKING STRUCTURES 13 PLANNING PARAMETERS 13 2.1Economy and Initial Costs13 2.2Economy and Life-Cycle Costs 13 2.3Structural Dur
4、ability 14 2.4Ease of Maintenance 14 2.5Ease of Construction 14 2.6Seismic Performance 14 2.7Appearance15 2.8Safety and Security16 2.9Space Allocation16 2.10 Short- Versus Long-Span Design 16 2.11 Story Height and Floor Depth16 2.12 Structure Height and Fire Safety or Protection Requirements 17 2.13
5、 Ongoing Maintenance 18 SECTION 3SUMMARY CONSIDERATIONS 19 APPENDIX ATHE STRUCTURAL MAINTENANCE OF PARKING GARAGES 21 Preventive Maintenance21 Annual Inspections21 Five-Year Inspections 21 Summary 21 Checklist for Structural Inspection of Parking Structures 22 APPENDIX BNON-STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS
6、 FOR OPEN-DECK PARKING STRUCTURES 23 GENERAL NON-STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS23 B.1Capacity Determination23 B.2Site Selection 23 B.3Subsurface Conditions 23 B.4Building Code Provisions23 B.5Clearance Heights, Number of Deck and Light Wells25 B.6Traffic Flow 25 B.7Ramp Systems 25 B.8Stall Configu
7、ration27 B.9Barriers, Curbs and Bumpers 28 B.10 Pedestrian Safety and Security 28 B.11 Stairs and Elevators 29 B.12 Fire Protection Systems 29 B.13 Drainage29 B.14 Signage29 B.15 Lighting 29 TABLE OF CONTENTS 5 Page “Steel Parking Structures Making a Comeback!”reads the headline in a recent issue of
8、 Parking Today,the leading independent trade publication of the U.S.parking in- dustry. Steel-framed parking structures today are radically different than their predecessors. New high-performance paint systems and modern galvanizing tech- niques have satisfied corrosion concerns and provide a protec
9、tive, attractive finish that lasts for decades. Choosing a steel framing system will improve the return on your investment through benefits that concrete cannot provide including: !lower construction costs !greater parking density providing more parking spaces !bright, open interiors enhancing patro
10、n security and comfort !earlier occupancy from reduced construction time and simplified construction practices !reduced maintenance costs as opposed to escalating restoration costs !superior long-term durability !unlimited opportunity for aesthetic expression !greater design flexibility !simplified
11、maintenance procedures !adaptability to irregular sites !reduced foundation requirements resulting from a lighter structure !convenience and ease of future vertical expansion In every way,steel is the logical choice for your next parking project. This Design Aid provides you with the information you
12、 need to make that choice. It wont turn you into a parking designer. It will help you work with your design professional to select the ideal framing systemsteel. Dont get caught in the trap of traditionbreak away from that same old,tired concrete parking garage! Read on and discover why the “weve al
13、ways done it that way”myths of parking just dont apply in the 21st Century. Discover how to build tomorrows parking structure today, with STEEL! EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Need additional assistance? Contact the Steel Solutions Center at 866.ASK.AISC or by email at solutionsaisc.org. Trained staff is availab
14、le to discuss your next parking project and assist you with preliminary design studies and comparative pricing. Cologne/Bonn Airport Bonn, Germany 5,850 spaces PARKING STRUCTURESAN INTRODUCTION D uring the past several decades, the open, above-ground, multi-level parking structure has been increasin
15、gly dotting the countrys urban and suburban landscape. The scarcity and cost of urban sites for inefficient grade-level parking lots together with the growth of large suburban malls and office parks have propelled structured parking to a prominent position in the nations building inventory. Open-dec
16、k parking structures typically provide multi-level parking for at least 150 vehicles and have at least two sides that are a minimum 50 percent open to the outside. The open parking structure is preferable to enclosed structures in that it does not re- quire mechanical ventilation and specialized fir
17、e protection sys- tems. Open-deck structures also create an increased sense of security for the patron and are easier and less expensive to con- struct. A vehicle is designed to be exposed to weather conditions and is ideally suited to the environment of an open deck structure. Open-deck parking str
18、uctures have two major structural sys- tems:the framing system which forms the skeleton of the structure and the deck system upon which the vehicles drive and park. There are three basic material choices that owners and devel- opers have for the framing systems: !Fabricated structural steel framing
19、(beams, girders and columns) supporting a concrete deck. !Cast-in-place concrete framing (concrete formed, poured and cured on the construction site), conventionally reinforced or post-tensioned, !Precast/prestressed (manufactured off-site) concrete framing using long-span double tees for deck. Thre
20、e deck options are generally utilized: !Precast systems utilizing long-span double tees (40 ft to 60 ft long concrete sections that have two “T”stems extending down from the deck). !Cast-in-place floor slabs with conventional steel reinforcing utilizing stay-in-place steel deck. !Cast-in-place post-
21、tensioned floor slabs utilizing steel cables to compress the slab after curing by placing the cables or tendons in tension. The steel-framed parking structure provides the opportunity to use any of the three concrete deck systems, a major advantage in choosing structural steel for a parking structur
22、e. Before discussing the important factors to be considered in designing and building an open, steel-framed parking structure, it is worthwhile to review many of the other advantages that are driving an increasing num- ber of owners and developers to make the change from concrete and choose structur
23、al steel framing. 1.1 The Advantages of Steel-Framed Parking Structures !Lower construction costs. Structural steel construction is very competitive with beam-and-column systems constructed with cast-in-place or precast/prestressed concrete. Typically, steel- framed systems can be constructed with a
24、 cost savings of 10 percent to 20 percent over a concrete alternative. Structural steel fabricators (firms that prepare steel framing for assembly into a building) representing wide geographical areas can com- pete for open deck parking structure work around the country. More than 500 structural ste
25、el fabricators now participate in the American Institute of Steel Constructions (AISC) Quality Certification program,many of which have experience in park- ing structure fabrication. 7 Page SECTION 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO STEEL-FRAMED OPEN-DECK PARKING STRUCTURES Bechton Dickinson Franklin Lakes, NJ 1,
26、600 spaces !Greater parking efficiency. Steel columns require 80 percent less floor space than equivalent concrete columns providing more parking spaces in the same building footprint. When coupled with the opportunity to use long-span steel beams, smaller columns provide the owner with the most fle
27、xibility in layout, capacity and efficiency. Wide-flange steel beams as shallow as 24 in.can span up to 60 ft in a passenger vehicle parking struc- ture. !Patron comfort, safety and security. Small columns, bright fin- ishes, long spans, relatively flat ceilings and braced or moment frames make a st
28、eel-framed parking structure easier to illumi- nate and secure. This feeling of openness, particularly in walk- ways, creates a positive feeling of passive security. Users often comment on how “open and bright”the decks of a steel-framed garage are. In contrast, concrete structures often require sol
29、id interior shear walls in order to resist lateral (horizontal) loads, which create visual obstructions and a “closed-in” feeling. !Early occupancy.Often the timely completion of a parking struc- ture is keyed to the opening of a commercial,residential or pub- lic facility. Unlike most buildings, th
30、e occupancy date of a parking structure is often governed by the speed of construction of the framing and floor system alone. One structural system combines the speed of prefabrication and erection of structural steel with precast long-span double tees and offers the fastest erection time for any ty
31、pe of open-deck parking structure. The framing systems for steel-framed parking structures are fabri- cated off-site and are ready for erection upon delivery. The process of assembling the steel framing for a parking structure consists of bolting proper steel segments together in a pre- scribed sequ
32、ence. Because of the smaller member sizes,the use of steel framing simplifies erection in locations with limited de- livery or construction access and allows construction in cold weather conditions. A steel framing system can be erected in a period of weeks rather than months. !Reduced maintenance c
33、osts. Life-cycle cost is the average annual maintenance and repair costs to be expected over the life of the parking structure. Structural engineers and others who have studied life-cycle costs conclude that steel-framed structures are usually less expensive (J. Englot, and Davidson, R.; “Steel- Fra
34、med Parking Garages Take Off at JFK and Newark Inter- national Airports”, Modern Steel Construction, April 2001). Parking industry experts have indicated that over a 50-year life, the cost to maintain a precast concrete deck and frame system will be between $0.05 and $0.08 per square foot,while the
35、cost to maintain a post-tensioned deck on a steel frame will be be- tween $0.03 and $0.05 per square foot, a savings of 40 percent. High-performance coatings (paints), galvanizing and metaliz- ing systems are demonstrating superior long-term corrosion protection for exposed structural steel. If dete
36、rioration of the concrete deck itself occurs, a steel-frame supporting that deck will minimize the cost and time required for rehabilitation of the slab and may even save the facility from demolition and total reconstruction. !Superior durability. Innovative techniques have revolutionized the corros
37、ion-resisting capabilities of structural steel. Struc- tural steel-frames that are coated with a high-performance, multi-coat paint system using a zinc rich primer can be ex- pected to perform well with little maintenance for 25 to 30 years. When properly applied over a prepared surface, a three- co
38、at paint system can provide over 30 years of corrosion protec- tion. Recent studies have shown that after 15 years less than half of one percent of the surface area of the steel has required any form of maintenance attention (Pope, G.; “Coatings for Parking Structures”, Modern Steel Construction, Ap
39、ril 2001). Some parking structure owners have chosen to protect their structures by using galvanized steel. This process,which cleans steel in an acid bath followed by dipping in a hot zinc bath,can provide effective protection from corrosion in excess of 40 years. Galvanized surfaces can be painted
40、 for aesthetic purposes and enhanced durability. !Ease of expansion and conversion. Structural steel simplifies fu- ture expansion,or the conversion of a parking structure to a dif- ferent use. Designing for future vertical expansion is a desired feature for many new parking structures. Vertical exp
41、ansion can be easily accomplished in a steel-framed structure through the splicing of existing columns and the placement of steel mem- bers with readily available cranes. In most cases only the top level of the existing parking structure needs to be taken out of service. The remainder of the parking
42、 structure can remain open. Steel framing facilitates the incorporation of tenant space 8 Page JFK International Airport, New York, New York 1,800 spaces Port Authority of New York “Fire Experience and Fire Tests in Automobile Parking Struc- tures”,Fire Journal,1973). As a result of intense building
43、 code and education activity during the 1970s and 1980s by local and national steel industry organizations,acceptance and application of “unpro- tected” steel in open parking structures accelerated quickly. Today,under the International Building Code and other model building codes, including NFPA 50
44、00, open, detached parking structures 70 to 80 ft high can be framed with unprotected steel in most jurisdictions.In fact,studies by the Parking Market Research Company have shown that less than $55,000 of structural damage has occurred in over 400 recent parking structure fires (“Parking Garage Fir
45、es”, D. Denda. Parking Market Research Company, McLean,Virginia, 1992). With the fire safety question resolved,the concrete industry fo- cused negative attention on the issues of deterioration and mainte- nance of exposed structural steel,especially in middle and northern tier states where road salt
46、s are used. Concrete,owners were told,is “maintenance-free,” while structural steel corrodes and requires frequent repainting. The steel industrys response was to encourage development of improved coating systems, which are now avail- able for the steel framing systems including highway bridges. Ex-
47、 perience has also alerted owners to the extent to which leakage of water and chlorides have taken their toll on parking structures framed in concrete. Todays reality is that, while regular preventa- tive maintenance is important for every parking structure, steel framing systems require only mainte
48、nance while their concrete counterparts face expensive restoration procedures. One measure of concretes corrosion susceptibility is the sheer number of prod- ucts being marketed to: !reduce the concrete decks permeability !waterproof or seal deck surfaces !improve durability and stability !protect a
49、ll types of reinforcing steel !prevent leakage through contraction,isolation and construction joints It is widely recognized today that steel-framed parking structures can re- sist deterioration at least as well, if not better than comparable concrete sys- tems. Coupled with the im- pact of the severity of the corrosive environment, there has been a lack of ap- preciation that the open parking structure demands closer attention to floor system design, construc- tion and inspection than the typical building re- gardless of whether the parking structure is steel or c
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