Encyclopedia of Early Cinema(Part A) .pdf
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1、 A access Research on early cinema is primarily conducted in moving-image archives (through public screenings and in structures designed for individual study) and specialized film festivals and occasional events (Pordenone, Bologna). Because of their fragility, original nitrate prints can be consult
2、ed only in exceptional cases. This is unfortunate because much of the visual quality of the film is lost in the preservation process through the creation of a duplicate, normally a 35 mm or 16 mm viewing print. Although useful as a reference tool, a reproduction through electronic media is not consi
3、dered a proper substitute for film, as it lacks the basic component of the cinematic work: a series of complete, consecutive photographic images projected through an intermittent mechanism. A moving-image archive does not function like a library: a film is not a text, and access to a film print cann
4、ot be granted as quickly as in a repository of books and journals. Before being given to the researcher, a print is retrieved from a climatized vault, slowly brought to ambient temperature (this procedure takes at least 24 hours), and inspected. The most complete listing of extant films of the early
5、 period is published by the International Federation of Film Archives (FIAF); however, a surviving film is not necessarily available for viewing, because it may not yet have undergone preservation. Research in the archive is greatly facilitated by the adoption of a few practical rules. Requests are
6、to be submitted in writing with reasonable advance, specifying the original title and, if possible, the production year. Viewing sessions are scheduled by appointment in a study center where prints are seen on editing tables (the preferable method for in- depth analysis, as the film can be run slowl
7、y through the machine), or projected on a large screen. No more than three features or a dozen shorts can be viewed during an average working day. Film prints must be treated with the utmost care for their physical integrity: replacing a damaged copy is very costly in terms of laboratory work and st
8、aff labor. Information on the provenance of the print is sometimes subject to restrictions imposed by the donors. Finally, the results of the viewing session should be shared with the archives staff for their cataloguing and documentation records in order to foster better public knowledge of the col
9、lection. With the exception of the Library of Congress in Washington D.C. and a few other institutions where research can be done at no cost, archives normally charge for access to their holdings. Archives may loan their prints for showings outside the institutions premises to non- profit organizati
10、ons and festivals with an established reputation for quality of presentation (variable speed projectors, three-blade shutters) and care for the archival elements. In doing so, they request that prints are shown with changeover (non-platter) projectors in order to minimize physical damage to the arti
11、fact. Many films of the early period are in public domain; however, borrowers are asked to obtain copyright clearance from the legal owners when this is required by law. Further reading Footage: The Worldwide Moving Image Sourcebook (1997) New York: Second Line Search. International Federation of Fi
12、lm Archives (2001ff.) Database of Archival Holdings, Brussels: FIAF (CD-ROM). Klaue, Wolfgang (1993) World Directory of Moving Image and Sound Archives, Munich: K.G.Saur. Magliozzi, Ronald S. (1988) Treasures from the Film Archives, Metuchen, N.J. and London: Scarecrow Press. PAOLO CHERCHI USAI Acre
13、s, Birt b. 1852; d. 1918 inventor/filmmaker, Great Britain/Germany A photographic technician, Acres designed a cinematographic camera by early 1895. He took the first British films during a short-lived partnership with Robert Paul, notably Arrest of a Pickpocket and The Derby; then, in June 1895, he
14、 took the first films in Germany, for Ludwig Stollwerck, at the opening of the Kiel Canal. Acres exhibited these films with his own projector in London in January 1896, then elsewhere, chiefly to scientific and photographic societies. Temperamentally unsuited to life as a showman, he marketed a 17.5
15、 mm amateur camera, the Birtac, in 1898, and then retreated to work in his small film laboratory and apparatus manufacturing firm. DEAC ROSSELL acting styles The earliest instances of acting on film consist of photographic reproductions of pre- existing acts: several Edison Kinetoscopes show the str
16、ong man Eugene Sandow flexing his muscles; others include Annabelle Whitford performing one of her fan dances. Slightly later, in the popular chase and trick films, people go through the requisite actions with only minimal attention to performance. Film acting as a profession, and as a set of specif
17、iable techniques, does not really begin until after 1908, as story film Encyclopedia of early cinema 2 production increased and the major producers formed their own stock companies, drawing from the pool of available theatrical talent. It is only after this point that one can begin to think about th
18、e development of cinematic acting styles as such. Discussions of acting in the American, British, and French trade press in 19081909 frequently compared it to pantomime as another form of acting without words. However, the overt substitution of gesture for dialogue soon came under criticism for bein
19、g artificial, too obviously directed toward the audience. Filmmakers rapidly found other ways of conveying the kind of information normally conveyed in dialogue on the legitimate stage: using intertitles and titles, stage business, props, or editing. The evolution of film acting lay, rather, in the
20、elaboration of devices for expressing emotion, underscoring dramatic situations, and blocking scenes in ways that were pictorially coherent and pleasing. Film actors drew upon a panoply of 18th- and 19th-century acting stylesstyles elaborated in the legitimate theater (and in opera and ballet, as we
21、ll as pantomime which relied upon poses, sometimes called attitudes, to control how the actor looked and moved on stage. Actors were enjoined to study statues and paintings, and to practice poses, and there was a consistent use of illustrative drawings in manuals on acting and oratory. Actors struck
22、 poses upon entering or exiting a scene, to indicate their interior states, to call attention to significant bits of stage business, and to signal major turning points in the action. Poses by the entire acting ensemble, called tableaux, were used at scene and act ends, and carefully planned by direc
23、tors and playwrights. If, by the 1910s, stage actors eschewed posing in certain genresnaturalist drama, and light, sophisticated comedy set in a contemporary, urban milieuthese techniques still widely were employed and appreciated in opera, in many stagings of Shakespeare and classical tragedy, and
24、for melodrama, romantic drama and history plays. In addition, some avant- garde stage directors associated with anti-naturalist movements such as symbolism and expressionism also sought to re-institute a highly posed acting style. Thus, these techniques remained available, and proved highly adaptabl
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