外文翻译--怎样撰写和编辑一篇论文.doc

淮 海 工 学 院毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译学 院： 机械工程 专业班级：机械设计制造及其自动化 机械051 姓 名： 边卫亮 学 号： 010519101 外文出处： Department of Sociology University of Toronto 附 件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。 指导教师评语： 签名： 年 月 日注：请将该封面与附件装订成册。怎样撰写和编辑一篇论文（一） .目的A.增强表达的创造性和清晰性B.通过对工作的关注和系统化，通过技巧实现最少的努力获得输出的最大化，使得创造性得到最大的发挥.C.自己要能够看到并且突出自己想法之间的内在联系.D.交流而不要自我欣赏（只写给自己）1.如果一种观点只是存在于你的头脑中，没有人听到过，那么就和不存在一样。E.你是在写散文并非诗歌，把撰写当作一个工作来做而不是通过论文来吸引别人。1.阅读一下IsakDinessen写的非洲之外，文笔清晰，语言简练，描述精确。F. Mark Twain：天才是百分之十的灵感加百分之九十的汗水但这是在系统写作方法开发之前的想法.我们的目的是要达到事半功倍的效果.G.诚然,写作是个困难、令人感到挫败、孤寂的工作。我去做因为我觉得必须要这样.如果你觉得没有必去搞艺术,做些其它的事情吧。我不写作的时候会感觉很困难，写作的时候也感觉很难。但是，至少我写就会有一个理由。H.解决方法就是不再等待着天才的灵感的降临，而是要坚持不断的写。经常，在你写作或者编辑的时候就会发现自己的灵感和天分.你的工作就是以事实为依据让不可见的的事情变得可见。现代艺术理论就像Martha Graham曾经和陷入信任危机的编舞家Agnes DeMille所说的那样：你的工作不是去质疑这样做是否有益，而是是保持通道畅通。 .了解你的读者A.研究生论文和专业论文的区别1.专业论文的类型A.长期研究报告B.评审文章C.理论文章D.咨询建议报告E.建议F.入门方法2.匿名评审：它怎样为论文和建议服务.3.大多数论文并不是因为枯燥的结果而被据,而是因为:A.主题不明确:他们并没有就他们所论述的问题以及对象读者有一个清晰的认识.B.组织结构混乱以及重复:部分章节混论，重复阐述.C.宣称取得的理论成果和不充分的数据之间的矛盾性.(1)有时是使用不合适的变量解释（通常是浮夸）-例如Siddique and Turk使用接触的频率代表密度，然后做为整个网络分析的代表.D.不了解自己从事领域的最新进展.B.所有的科学论文都是一种“假设”. 1.依据一系列的标准公约，研究者提出一个高度理想化的公式.这个过程忽略了任何错误路径,不利的分析.正确的做法应该是:你的工作并不是提供你实际做的研究的流水账，而是你实际实现的功能的总结.结果是真实的而非虚假的。C.对自然的印象应该是有秩序的、简单化、综合化的审美观的结合.C.了解你的学报1.通俗和实质2.主要到次要A.接受率：AJS大约是15%,其他可能大于50%. 3.风格区别 D.语言表达1.除了睿智的问题,发现或者结论,精简一切不必要的.A.大幅度削减文字性的描述,提出自己的看法-读者希望听到你的看法.2.平衡文章前后比重,使得重点突出.A.当演讲者刚刚开始时,大会主席告诉他要在三分钟内结束，这会使他很惊讶的.B. 列出提纲，练习并使用秒表3. 从一个要点讲起，而不是照本宣科A. 如果你只是照本宣科，很难避免唠唠叨叨地讲下去，除非你是罗纳德·里根（他就是这样）4，用一些可见的工具打破单调的氛围，并给出具体细节A 至少要散发复印的材料（1） 这些材料可以给观众提供一些可以带走或思考的东西。B 用字幕片（用复印机很容易做）或者幻灯片（1） 使用大字体（2） 避免杂乱无章E. 始终提醒自己并做好准备 1，当你在写作时，在你面前粘贴一段话，给出题目，知识产权以及观众 2，发现你自己在论文及人群中的作用模式：从已经出版的日报文章中分析格式（不是内容），从有大量出版经验资深的大学教师那里获得建议 3，交流！要尽量写得得清晰，向别人推敲自己的观点 4，使用单倍行距，这样在编辑时你可以同时看到更多的行，你也可以在最后出版时改变行距。 5，用10到12点的serif 字体（比“Times Roman”）这比sans serif 具有更好的可读性 6，对主标题以及副标题考虑使用一个sans serif 字体（比如粗体，但是用相同的点大小），这样可以使标题突出。仅对一些重要词语首字母大些。A. 一级标题（主要观点）：居中，加粗B. 二级标题左对齐并加粗在标题这一行C. 三级标题：斜体，加粗，不在这一行，另起一段。F. 隐士很少能够写出好的论文。发展你的艺术社区。与周围合适的人交流你的观点。1. 毕加索说，不要避免别人的影响2. 他们能帮助你发现纰漏。3. 给你新的思路和带来新的源泉4.把热情传染给你A 艺术家身边有些积极主动的人是很重要的（萨利文说）B 艺术家之间的相互滋养比声望和公众带来的滋养要多（麦克和南希塞缪尔在用思想的眼睛来看中说）C 为了知道那些技术的和经验的因素广泛地影响有效性和正确性，艺术家必须有技术知识和广泛的亲身经历的知识（芝加哥大学新闻系的艾里克斯偌森伯格在浮现的女神中艺术、科学和其它领域中的创造性过程中说）。 论文部分 论文的总长度应该30页左右，包括参考文献（但是不包括图表和图形）F.艺术不是一件容易的事每一个微小细节都是重大决定必须使内容保持一定的比例。必须坚持你的主题。（斯蒂芬桑坦在和乔治在公园里的星期天中说【1984年大街道音乐】，“把他放在一起”，）标题1 早一些写能够帮助你把自己的注意力集中到你的论文内容上，但是要经常修改它。2 用它来介绍你的论文3 一个好的解决放法是使用两部分A 第一部分简短扼要在末尾使用一个冒号B 第二部分应该叙述得更详细摘要1 最后写它，用它来传达你的研究结果2 这样读者在开始读你的论文之前就会知道重点不要使你的论文看上去像一篇神秘的小说3 通过从内容中摘关键的短语来做一个草稿，尤其是你的介绍和摘要4 避免使用这样的开始“这篇论文报告的是性带来幸福”，要突出重点“性，带来幸福，越多越好。我们所访问的1000位男士和女士中绝大多数同意这个观点。”E 有智慧的提问为什么写第一页是一件重要的事情?1 这个场景在哪里被设置，这个主要的考虑在哪里被处理2 “第一句话应该包含气氛的精髓，故事的感情内容和他最终的结果。”史考弗瑞奇在“人类灵魂的工程师”第68页中说。E 文献观点用5到10页叙述在这方面谁做过1 中学和专业性论文的一个主要的不同2 你不能试图去展示你知道关于这个课题的每一件东西或者你很精明（它是被假设的你写的就像它是被假设的你是一个有能力的专业人员）i 另一方面，作为一个学生的论文，你需要说服你的导师你广泛的知道这个课题然而这仍然不意味着在厨房污水槽中的投掷。3 你尤其应该试图重点有智慧地讨论你的论文贡献了什么（下文有报告）4 因此要非常小心的把争论尖锐化，但是不要把细节提上日程。许多人可能在这一部分的一开始仅仅通过草图来更有益的工作，然后在写完他们的研究成果后在填充它。5 找到文献 i 使用社会文献引用索引，找到谁对这个领域热衷，最近的进展怎样（1）最好使用计算机操作的在线版本查询所有的领域和所有的作者（2）如果使用印刷的版本，工作会落后（3）不要仅仅关注老一辈的专家虽然在SSCI中很容易搜到他们ii 使用社会学的摘要，论文摘要，社会科学和人类文学索引，加拿大期刊索引。ii 使用计算机搜索社会的，精神的许多成果6、记笔记i. 用4x6的索引卡或者记笔记的程序 (1)每张卡的左上角：当前相关的主题和副主题 (2)右上角：作者，日期 (3)只在一边做笔记，以便一目了然 (4) 生活的有规律些，使得你可以在工作的时候一直处于最初的兴奋状态 (5)不要单纯引用，最好转述：更短，更严格(的转述)，使得别人的想法为你所用。A. 如果你一定要引用，务必要给出页码，并且要单纯的引用，但是省略解释性的语句也是可以的。ii. 把所有引用的参考文献写在一张3x5的卡片上，并且要用标准格式(6)左上角的作者，日期要于你的研究卡连接起来A. 或者用记笔记的程序来完成这些操作。大多数基于数据的程序都可以完成这些工作。（可能甚至Word也可以做的很完美）关键是能够定义域，并且可以进行布尔搜索。(7)把这些卡按照类放在一堆。(A)一次抽出一类放在你的工作台上。7. 根据你思想的顺序来组织稿子，而不是根据作者顺序8. 4个阶段I. 总结其他作者的观点ii. 综合他们的想法找到普遍原则iii. 分析他们的观点的长处iv. 提出新的观点以贡讨论9. 避免像“XXX说”等这样的表达i. 最好有讨论环节，这样与你研究有关的许多好的观点会被提出来ii. 玛莎葛兰姆说过：我们都在偷盗。重要的是我们从哪偷来的，并且把它们偷来干什么。（注意到我刚从她那偷来了这句话）I. 要估计他们所说过的，而不是说了就说了。1. 合成观点，找到他们的共同点，分析他们观点的长处，并且使之为你的观点做贡献(1)“对我来说，写作的唯一好的理由就是试图把分散的思想组织成一个整体，并且把各种东西联系起来。” B. 考虑使用一个大纲程序（比如我开始写的那个：Maxthink）去记录，然后把它们互相联系起来。但是只在DOS环境下。文字处理器也可以。(1) 培养一个好的混合结构的和直觉的思维(2)先勾画主要思想，然后再增加细节(3) 或者在每一项里填写细节(4)或者两者同时使用(2)和(3)同时使用的意思)C. 轻松的把想法转移到相关的方面去，不要只在和句子一样的思想上转悠四、轻松地将一些主题句子充实成完整的段落。E、另外一种二选一的做法是基于文本的理解纲要：探索、干扰、来回搬运。11、技术上的和咨询的报告经常受限，或者甚至消除，这一段，顾客需要的是结果，而不是学术上的争论。A、推论或焦点问题 2页1.已开始就得对照你提出的广义的智力问题，这就是你“真正”要考虑的东西。2.你必须在文献综述中提出来，也就是，你的文献应该将读者引入一个无缝的网络，以便读者能够只需通过逻辑和“自然地“联系到你所真正研究的方法。a.事实上，你应该在你已经写好推论之后重写你的文献综述，所以这是你一种情况。3.在很多中情况下，你可能并不需要或并不想要形式上限定的推论，逃避错位的“科学态度“你或许正在估量竞争论据的价值（例如：社区的消失、继存或者解放）。A.不要仅仅把假设列于表上花上至少一段话说明每一个假设的合理性，并指明他们是怎样与假设相互关联的。4这部分对支持推论是非常重要的（即使或许有点长），因为你并没有结论去判定你的推断和方法的合理性你不得不附件上更多你认为十分公正合理的想去做的事情。例如：这里有一些获得国家卫生研究组织支持的估计标准A 提案的目的是否明确B 问题的答案是否给出，或者已经取得了定期的目标，为新知识的献身或者对学科的理解C 这工作是否之前就结束了？如果是，是否要从做？为什么要从做？D 过去过现在，这推论是否有关键的研究内容被遗漏哪一些是对这推断有重大意义？E 这些方法是否满足这个推断的目标？外文原件Department of SociologyUniversity of Toronto725 Spadina Ave. Toronto, Canada M5S 1A1How To Write - and Edit - a PaperBarry Wellman December 6, 1999I. PURPOSE A. Enhance creativity and clarity of expression. B. Liberate creativity by systematizing work, focusing work, using tricks to do "maximum output withminimum effort"C. Enables you to see - and highlight - connections between your ideas. D. Communication, not masturbation (writing for one's self) 1. "A vision is just a vision if it's only in your head. If no one get's to hear it, it's as good as dead!"(Stephen Sondheim, "Putting It Together," from Sunday in the Park with George Broadway musical,1984? E. You are writing prose, not poetry: writing to do a job, not to call attention to itself 1. See Isak Dinessen, Out of Africa. Clear writing, beautifully precise descriptions, but simple language.F. Mark Twain-"Genius is 10% inspiration and 90% perspiration".But this was before systems of writing techniques were developed. Our approach is to see if we can raise inspiration proportion to 20% by cutting down on the perspiration.G. Nevertheless, writing is hard, frustrating, lonely work.“I do it because I have to. If you dont have to do art, then do something else. Kevin Cunningham, Executive Artistic Director, 3-Legged Dog performance art group at Bellagio Centre for Studies and Conferences, 16Nov99. “Im difficult when I dont write, and Im difficult when I do write. But at least when I write there is a reason.” Science-fiction writer/editor Judith Merril, personal communication, about 1995.H. The solution is to NOT wait for inspirational genius to descend but to keep writing anyway. Usually you will write servicable prose, and often you will discover your genius as you write or as you edit. Your job is “to make the invisible visible through reality.” Max Beckman, painter, as quoted by Herschel Chipp, Theories of Modern Art. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968: 188-89. As Martha Graham once told fellow choreographer Agnes DeMille who was having a crisis of confidence:Your job is not to question if its any good.Your job is to keep the channel open!2I. KNOW YOUR AUDIENCE A. Differences between a graduate student paper and a professional paper 1. Types of professional papers A. Report of substantive research B. Review essay C. Theory piece D. Research report for a consultant E. Grant proposal F. "How-to" methods 2. Anonymous refereeing: how it works for papers and proposals. 3. Most papers don't fail because of boring results, but because:A. Poorly focused: Don't have a clear idea of what they are writing about or who their audience is. B. Poorly organized and repetitious: Parts out of order; circular writing.C. Have inconsistencies between their grand theoretical claims and their more limited data. (1) Sometimes use inappropriate (often too grandiose here, too) labels (claims) for their variables - e.g., Siddique and Turk's use of frequency of contact as a label for density, which then was taken as a proxy for evaluating all of network analysis (CRSA, 1983).D. Poor scholarship: not aware of latest writings/thought in the field. B. All scientific papers are "a fraud" Sir Peter Medawar, as quoted by John Duran, New York Review of Books, 28 April 19881. They present a formal and highly idealized account of research, written according to a set of standard conventions. They don't tell about all (or any) of the false trails, bad ideas, missed-up analyses. This is as it should be: Your job is not to provide a blow-by-blow account of how you actually did the research, it is to summarize what you actually accomplished. The result is a sanitized account, but not a lie.C. “Gaughin . taught that the impression of nature must be combined with an aesthetic sense that selects orders, simplifies and synthesizes.” Jan Verkade, “Gaughin and the School of Pont-Avens” exhibit, Montreal Museum of Fine Arts, April, 1995.C. Know your journals 1. General vs. substantive. 2. Major to minor. A. Acceptance rates: AJS about 15%; others may be greater than 50%. But partially, too, a core-periphery problem. Periphery may lack collegial feedback. 3. Style differences. D. Oral presentations1. Cut down on everything but the intellectual question, findings and conclusion.A. Cut back literature review drastically and merge with intellectual question - audience wants to hear YOUR findings.2. Balance the proportions of your paper beforehand to the time you'll be aloud.A. Many speakers are surprised when they're just getting started and the chairperson tells them they have 3 minutes to finish.3B. Outline, practice and use a stopwatch.3. Speak from an outline, not from a written text.A. Almost impossible not to drone on if you read from a written text, except if you're Ronald Reagan (who has to).4. Use visual aids to break the monotony, give concrete detailA. At the minimum, photocopied handouts.(1) These also give the audience something to take away and think about.B. Overhead transparencies (easy to make with a photocopier) or slides(1) Use large print(2) Avoid clutter.E. Remind yourself throughout and prepare 1. Paste paragraph in front of you when you write giving title, intellectual question, and audience. 2. Find yourself paper and human role models: analyze already-published journal articles for form (not content), get advice from veteran-heavily-published-faculty members. 3. Communicate!: write to be clear for others, to sell your ideas to them. 4. Always work single-spaced - allows you to see more lines for editing; you can always change spacing at the end for publication.5. Use 10 to 12 point serif font (such as “Times Roman”). Better readability than sans serif.6. Consider using a sans serif font (bold, but in same point size) for Heads and Sub-Heads. This makes the heads stand out. Capitalize only important words.A. First level head (main ideas): Centered, BoldB. Second level head Left Flush and Bold on its own line.C. Third level head: Italic, Bold, not on its own line, starts a paragraphF. Hermits rarely write good papers. Develop your artistic community. Talk with appropriate others about your ideas. 1. Pablo Picasso “I never avoided the influence of others.” (As quoted in Chip Sullivan, Drawing the Landscape, 2d. ed., 1997: 52).2. They will help you spot holes3. Give you new ideas and fresh leads to new sources4. Give you infectious enthusiasm. A. “It is important for artists to be surrounded by others who are driven and motivated.” (Sullivan, 1997: 53).B. “Artists are nourished by each other more than by fame or by the public.” (Mike and Nancy Samuels, Seeing with the Minds Eye, 1975: 169).C. “The artist must have the . technical knowledge and more broadly situated knowledge of human experience in order to know what technical matters and elements of experience are most widely held to be valid and true.” Alex Rothenberg, The Emerging Goddess: TheCreative Process in Art, Science and Other Fields. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979: 132.II. PARTS OF A PAPER Total length should be about 30 pp., including References (but not Tables and Figures).F. "Art isn't easy.Every minor detail is a major decision.4Have to keep things in scale.Have to hold to your vision."(Stephen Sondheim, "Putting It Together," from Sunday in the Park with George Broadway musical, 1984? G. Title 1. Write it early to help you focus on contents of your paper, but change it often. 2. Use it to sell your paper. 3. One good solution is to use two parts A. The first short and snappy-with a colon (:) at the end. B. The second part should be more fully descriptive. C. Abstract 1. Write at the end, but use it to convey your findings. 2. This way your readers will know the highlights before they start to read your paper-don't make your paper a mystery novel. 3. Do a first draft by stealing key phrases from your text, especially your introduction and summary.4. Avoid beginning with "This paper reports that sex leads to happiness." Get right to the point: "Sexleads to happiness. The more, the better. The 1,000 men and women we interviewed overwhelmingly agree." E. Intellectual Question - Why This is an Important Thing to Write About 1 p. 1. Where the scene is set; where the grand considerations are dealt with 2. "The very 1st sentence should contain in essence the atmosphere, the emotional content of the story and its final effect." Joseph Skvorecky, the Engineer of Human Souls, p. 68.E. Literature Review - Who's Done What on the Subject. 5-10 pp.1. One of main differences between high school and more professional paper. 2. You are not trying to show that you know everything about a subject or that you are smart (it is assumed - and you write as if it is assumed - that you are a competent professional).i. On the other hand, for a student paper, you need to convince your prof. that you do know the subject comprehensively-however, this still doesn't mean throwing in the kitchen sink. 3. Rather, you are trying to set the terms of the intellectual debate to which your research (reported on below) is contributing.4. Hence work carefully to sharpen the terms of the debate but don't get hung up on details. Many people might work most profitably by only sketching out this section initially, and then filling it in after they have written up their research findings. 5. Finding the literature.i. Use Social Science Citation Index, to find out who's hot in the field; what recen