1、Chapter 2The Sounds of LanguageMelody 2012Melody 2012Guangzhou Guangzhou UniverstiyUniverstiyOverviewofChapter2Phonetics1.Scopesofphonetics2.Importantarticulators3.Phonetictranscription4.ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds5.VariationsofsoundsPhonology1.Phonology vs.phonetics2.Phone,phoneme and allop
2、hone3.Minimal pairs and sets4.Free variation5.Distinctive features6.syllables and consonant clusters7.Suprasegmental features1.Scopeofphonetics1.1DefiningphoneticsPhonetics is the branch of linguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationand
3、transcription.Whatisphonetics?Phoneticsthe study of speech sounds that occur in all human languages.It is a branch of linguistics which studies human speech sounds and provides methods for the description,classification and transcription of these sounds.1.2ScopeofphoneticsThethreebranchesofphonetics
4、p.26)Articulatoryphonetics（发发音音语语音音学学）studies thehuman speech organs,and the way in which thespeechsoundsareproduced.Acousticphonetics(声学语音学声学语音学)-transmissionAuditoryphonetics（听觉语音学）（听觉语音学）-perception.Among the three branches,only articulatoryphoneticsisdealtwithinourcourse.2.Importantarticulators
5、Articulators/speech organsThe lungs and the trachea(treiki windpipe)pulmonic sounds(肺闭塞音肺闭塞音)The resonating cavities(共鸣腔共鸣腔)The resonating cavities is where the airstream coming from the lungs is modified in various ways,resulting in the production of various sounds.Oral cavity 口腔口腔Nasal cavity 鼻腔鼻腔
6、pharyngealcavity/pharynx咽腔咽腔Thepharyngealcavity/pharynx(咽咽腔腔):betweenthetopofthelarynx(喉喉)andthesoftpalate)Thethroatcontainsvocalcords/folds,ventricularfolds（膨膨 胀胀 带带）and glottis声声 门门 (the openingbetweenthevocalcords),themovementofwhichdetermines the quality of voicing(voiced&voiceless)andpitch(音高音高
7、).Thenasalcavity(鼻腔鼻腔):thenoseNasalresonance(共共鸣鸣)canbeproducedduetothelowering the soft palate(velum),resulting theproductionofnasals.Theoralcavity(口腔口腔):themouthItcontainsthelips,teeth,teeth(alveolar)ridge(齿齿龈龈/槽槽)tipoftongue,bladeoftongue,hardpalate,frontoftongue,backoftongue,softpalate(velum),uv
8、ula,epiglottis(会厌软骨会厌软骨).ImportantarticulatorsImportantarticulatorsPositionofthevocalfolds:voicelessPositionofthevocalfolds:voicing(initial&thewidestaperture孔径)Positionofthevocalfolds:glottalstop喉塞音3.Phonetictranscription3.1IPAIPA-InternationalPhoneticAssociationortheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet48个
9、国际音标发音规则个国际音标发音规则Phonetictranscription3.2NarrowandbroadtranscriptionTheprincipleoftheInternationalPhoneticAlphabetistouseaseparatelettertorepresentadistinctivesound.Assomesoundsdifferonlyslightly,symbolscalleddiacritics1(变变音音符符)areusedtoshow detailed articulatory features of sounds.The phonetictrans
10、cription with diacritics is called narrow transcription.Otherwiseitisabroadtranscription,whichisusedgenerallyindictionariesandlanguagetextbooks.pitspringbroadtranscription:/pit/spri/narrowtranscription:phitsp=ri Notes:1Diacritic,inlinguistics,referstoamarkaddedtoasymboltoalteritsvalue,e.g.thesignofa
11、spirationh,andthesign=,indicatingunaspiratedness.2Accordingtoawidelyrecognizedconvention,squarebracketsareused to indicate narrow transcription,and obliques broadtranscription.4.ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds4.1 Phonetic featuresSpeech sounds can be classified into four types:voiced and voicele
12、ss,nasal and oral.(p.31)1)Voiced and voiceless sounds(pp.29-30)Voiced soundssounds produced in the way that the airstream forces its way through and causes vocal cords to vibrate.Voiceless soundssounds produced in the way that the airstream is not obstructed at the place between vocal cords.2)Nasal
13、and oral sounds(p.31)Nasal soundssounds produced in the way that air escapes through the nose as well as the mouth.Oral soundssounds produced in the way that air escapes only through the mouth.4.ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds4.2Consonantsandvowels1)ConsonantsConsonantsinEnglishcanbeclassifiedin
14、twoways:themannerofarticulationandtheplaceofarticulation.a.Mannersofarticulation(p32)Mannersofarticulationrefertothewaysof articulation which result in differentdegrees ofobstruction against theairstream,suchascomplete,partial,oramerenarrowingoftheoraltract.b.place of articulation(p32)consonantsPrac
15、tice:The consonants of English can be described in the following manner:p voiceless bilabial stopb voiced bilabial stops voiceless alveolar fricativez voiced alveolar fricative2)VowelsVowelsspeech sounds in the production of which the airstream from the lungs is not blocked in any way in the mouth o
16、r nose,and the vocal cords are usually vibrated.a.Which part of the tongue is raised?front vowelscentral vowelsback vowelsb.What is the shape of the lips?rounded vowelsunrounded vowelsc.Whether is the mouth open?open vowelclosed vowel;semi-open vowelssemi-closed vowelsd.What is the length of the vow
17、els?long vowelsshort vowelse.g.the vowel i:can be described as front,unrounded,closed and long.4.ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds2)VowelsThecriteriaofvoweldescriptionClassificationofEnglishvowelsaccording to their componential elements:singlevowels,diphthongs,andtriphthongs.Jones:An Outline of En
18、glish Phonetics(1918)Black:IPARed:EnglishIndex5VariationofsoundsLiasion ElisionAssimilation 3 Variations of sounds1)liaison(linking)the linking of words in speech,in particular when the second word begin with a vowel.And these words belong to the same sense-group.e.g.stand up,above all,look at it,fi
19、rst of all,a number of,here is it,Where is it?2)elisionthe leaving out of a sound or sounds in speech.e.g.kindness kaindniskainnis,sit down,most probably,dont know,with that,some more tea,我们我们uomenuomn/uom,豆腐豆腐 toufutouf3)assimilationthe process of substituting one phoneme by another,or turning two
20、neighbouring phonemes into a new one,under the influence of the surrounding sounds.e.g.news/nju:z/,newspaper/nju:speip/,five/faiv/,fivepence/faifpans/,used/juzd/,used to/ju:st tu/,in bed inbedimbed,Liasion:相邻的词中，前一个词的末尾是辅音，后一个词的开头是元音Takealookatit.Illbebackinhalfanhour.Willittakealotoftimetogototowno
21、nfoot?为使说话流畅，词末元音可以和词首元音连读，而不停顿。Dontworryaboutit.Imsorryabouttheaccident.Ihavewaitedforyouforthreehours.Weallagreewiththeplan.连读加音：（1）外加音/j/。两词相连，前一个词以/i/或/i:/结尾，后一个词以/i/或/i:/起首，前一个词后加一个轻微的/j/音，并和后一个词连读。Youcanseeit.Pleasecopyit.Sayitagain.连读加音：（2）外加音/r/。两词相连，前一个词以/结尾，后一个词以/起首，前一个音后加一个/r/音，并和后一个/连读。i
22、deaofitThevaseismadeofchinaandglass.Theroomhasanareaof12squaremeters.连读加音：（3）外加音/w/。两个元音连读，前一个元音是/u/或/u:/时，产生一个轻微的加音/w/，和后一个词的元音词首连读。Dontdoit.Goeasy.Itstooeasy.Thebirdflewinthesky.当两个词首尾有两个或两个以上的辅音时，为了使发音流畅，可以将这些辅音连在一起读，而不停顿。Ihopetofindagoodjob.HearingthebadnewsIcouldnthelpcrying.Iliveinatwo-bedroom
23、flatwithmyparents.Shehasbeenawayfromherowncountryforalongtime.Shallwemeetateighttonight/ortenoclocktomorrow?连连接音接音/r/：单词以单词以r或或re结尾，结尾，后接元音开头的词。后接元音开头的词。意群之间有停意群之间有停顿时不连读顿时不连读Elision元音的省略vfactoryvhistoryvliteraturevuniversityvextraordinaryvlaboratoryvcenturyvinterestingBritish EnglishPhonetics:Assim
24、ilation 1.2.3.Phonetics:Assimilation 4.5.6.Phonetics:Assimilation 7.8.AssimilationinMandarin好啊hao wa海啊hai ya看啊kan na唱啊chang 跳啊tiao wa AssimilationRegressive assimilation 逆逆同同化化-a following sound influences a preceding sound.Progressive assimilation-a preceding sound influences a following sound.Phon
25、ologyWarming-up activity:Pronounce“spring”,first with the aspirated/p/,then with the non-aspirated/p/pride vs.brideWhat is Phonology?Phonologythe study or description of the distinctive sound units of a language and their relationshipPhonology1.Phonology vs.phonetics2.Phone,phoneme and allophone3.Mi
26、nimal pairs and sets4.Free variation5.Distinctive features6.syllables and consonant clusters7.Suprasegmental features1.Phonologyvs.phoneticsThe differences:1)phoneticsgeneral,descriptive and classificatory;phonologyparticular and functional2)phoneticsactual physical articulations of speech sounds;ph
27、onologythe abstract aspect of the sounds in a language3)phoneticsthe means for describing speech sounds;phonologythe way in which speech sounds are combined,organized,and convey meaning in particular languagesphonetics phonology sounds of language functioning of sounds as part of a language universa
28、l language-specific concrete abstract parole language system phone:phoneme:/2.Phone,phonemeandallophone1)phonea phonetic unit,which does not necessarily distinguish meaning.e.g.pit spit 2)phonemea phonological unit,it is the smallest unit of sound in a language that can distinguish two words/meaning
29、e.g.pan ban /p/b/bet bit /e/i/bet bed /t/d/Some points to be noticed:a.the number of phonemes varies from one language to another.The average is around thirty-five.English has forty-four according to one common analysis.the number of phonemes varies from one language to another.English 44,Chinese 5
30、6 learning Chinese is more difficult than Englishb.a phone may be a phoneme in one language but may not in another language.“sin-thin”/s/-/In Chinese s is,but is not.三岁三岁 san suei in English aspirated and unaspirated phones are not two phonemes but one,each occurring in a different position e.g.peak
31、speak.But in Chinese they are two different phonemes:铺铺部部,突突都都,in Chinese 卷舌卷舌不卷舌不卷舌 are two phonemes but they are not in English.司长司长师长师长,交代交代招待招待,studyshtudy3)allophonesphones which are phonetically similar but not the same and which are treated as the same in linguistic communication;or the sound
32、s which are phonetically different but do not make one word different from another in meaning.e.g.lipplayfeel lipis made by raising the front of the tongue to the hard palate,while the vocal cords are vibrating;playis made with the same tongue position but the vocal cords are not vibrating;feelis ma
33、de by raising not only the front but also the back of the tongue while the vocal cords are vibrating.sad(long)pat(short)can(nasalized)phoneme and allophone:A phoneme is an abstract unit,not any particular sound.It may be realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.And the different pho
34、nes that represent the same phoneme are its allophones.e.g.,the phoneme/p/can be realized by the following phones in different phonetic context:particulated with aspiration when followed by a stressed vowel as in“put”particulated with little aspiration when followed by an unstressed vowel as in“pape
35、r”particulated with no aspiration when the s is before it as in“speak”topstoppitcity(voiced)phonemeandallophoneAllophones（音位变体音位变体)Thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeincertainphonetic context are called its allophones.So thephonesphandp=aretheallophonesofthesamephoneme/p/.Inthiscasetheallophonesaresai
36、dtobeinCOMPLEMENTARYDISTRIBUTIONbecausetheyneveroccurinthesamecontext.Thatistosaythatp=alwaysoccursafterswhilephalwaysoccursinotherplaces.Wecanrepresentthisruleas:(1)/p/p=/s_phelsewherecomplementarydistributionThe allophones of a phoneme do notdistinguishmeaningorwords,butcomplementeachotherindistri
37、bution,i.e.theyoccurindifferentphoneticenvironments.So they are said to be incomplementarydistribution.AllophoneLeaddealINdealthetongueiscurledalittlebackwardstowardsthehardpalate(PALATALIZATION).Weoftencallthisdarklandusethesymbolinphonetic(ornarrow)transcription.l,aspronouncedinlead,iscalledclear1
38、Consequently,leadistranscribedasli:danddealasdi:phonetically.Theruleisverysimple:thephoneme/l/ispronouncedaslbeforeavowelandasiafteravowel.Theyareagainincomplementarydistribution.Itcanberepresentedas:(2)/l/l/_V/V_3.Minimal pairs and sets P38-39 1)minimal pair最小对立体最小对立体a pair of words that differ by
39、 only a single sound in the same position.(p.335)In other words,when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string,the two words are called minimal pairs.e.g.bearpear bedbad leadleakfanvan betbat siteside pill-bill,pill-till,k
40、ill-bill.2)minimal set最小对立体集最小对立体集e.g.pillbilltilldillkillfeat,fit,fate,fat,fought,footBig,pig,rig,fig,dig,wigThese words can be differentiated by changing only one phoneme.All these words together constitute a minimal set.three requirements for identifying a minimal pair:a)the two words are differe
41、nt in meaning;b)the two words are different because of just one phoneme;c)the phonemes that make the two words different occur in the same phonetic environment.4.FreevariationFree variationwhen the same word has two or more sounds which occur in the same position without change of meaning,these soun
42、ds are called free variation.(P 39)5.Distinctivefeaturesp40Adistinctivefeatureisaphoneticpropertywhich can distinguish one phonemefromanotheroronegroupofphonemesfromanothergroup.Forexample,voicing is a distinctive feature forEnglish obstruents(阻阻塞塞音音),includingstops,fricativesandaffricates.5Distinct
43、ivefeaturesDistinctive featurethe phonetic feature that distinguishes one phoneme from another in a language.The minimal pair given bellow illustrate a distinctive feature in the phonological system of English:bat/matThe difference in meaning between the two is due only to the difference in nasality
44、 between b and m.b and m are identical in all features except for the fact that b is oral(nasal)and m is nasal(+nasal).Thus,nasality is a distinctive feature of English consonants.6.SyllablesandconsonantclustersSyllableOnsetRime(rhyme)Nucleus(peak)CodaConsonant(s)VowelConsonant(s)6.Syllablesandconso
45、nantclusters Syllablea unit in speech which is usually longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word,e.g.terminology Different languages may have different syllable structures.In English,the onset position may be empty or filled by a cluster of as many as three consonants(spray,scream,strange,
46、thread),while coda position may be filled by as many as four consonants(as in sixths).The English syllable may be represented as(C)C)C)V(C)C)C)C).Four basic patterns of syllables structures in English:a.VI b.CVtea c.VCoil d.CVCtongueThe Chinese syllable,however,allows at most one consonant in the on
47、set position and only nasals in the coda.Thus the Chinese syllable is represented as(C)V(C).ConsonantclusterA consonant cluster is a group or sequence of consonants that appear together in a syllable without a vowel between them.Consonant clustera sequence of two or more consonants in one syllable.I
48、nitial cluster:splashFinal cluster:test Medial cluster :pastry Typesofsyllables Open syllables are those syllables that have no coda.绝对开音节：单个元音字母后面没有辅音字母的重读音节。例如：no she he we by.相对开音节：单个元音字母后面加单个辅音字母，再加一个不发音字母e构成的重读音节。例如：name these bike home excuse like.Closed syllables are those syllables that have
49、 a coda.以一以一个或几个辅音字母（个或几个辅音字母（r除外）结尾而中间只有一个元音字除外）结尾而中间只有一个元音字母的音节，称为闭音节。母的音节，称为闭音节。eg:map,desk,isTherulesgoverningthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguagearecalledsequentialrules.InEnglish,forexample,ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingt
50、hreerules:1)thefirstphonememustbe/s/;2)thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/;and3)thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w/.7.SuprasegmentalfeaturesStress 重音规则重音规则P43-44 Intonation Tone StressStressthe pronunciation of a word or syllable with more force than the surrounding words or syllables.In English ther
