1、English LinguisticsWhy bother to study 1.It is a required course for English majors.2.It is tested when you pursue your graduate study.3.It is practically useful for studying literature and translation.4.It is practically useful in helping you understand the relation between what you speak and where
2、 you live.How to study1.Preview and review2.Discuss with your classmates&ask your teacher3.Use the Internet ;www.wikipedia.org www.linguistlist.org4.Use other related materials.5.Relate it to your daily life.Chapter OneThe basic issues in this chapter:1.What is Language?2.Design features of language
3、3.Functions of language.4.What is Linguistics?5.Four pairs of important distinctions in linguistics.QuestionsRead 1.1 on page 1-2 and answer the following questions:1.Why do we need to study language?2.What can you learn from this course book?1.1The definition of language Language is a system of ar
4、bitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.Language is a system A basic observation is that each language contains two systems,a system of sound and a system of meaning,and language is a rule-governed system.2.Language is arbitrary The relation between expression and content is not natural
5、 but conventional.And this conventional relation varies from language to language.e.g.A is called a“老鼠”in Chinese,while a“rat”or“mouse”in English.3.Language is vocal The primary medium of language is sound rather than word.written forms came much later than the spoken forms;we speak more everyday;we
6、 learn to speak first.4.Language is symbolic Language is symbolic in the sense that all the sounds people produce and the ideas,concepts,objects,etc.that these sounds can refer to are bound up by convention.Linguistic units are conventional signs.5.Language is human-specific Language is possessed on
7、ly by human beings,other communication systems as possessed by animals or many other life forms are not languages,i.e.they do not manifest such features as the so-called design features design features as possessed by human language.6.Language is for communication The main and primary function of la
8、nguage is for human beings to communicate.People say things to each other to express their communicational needs,and language functions to communicate general attitudes toward life and others.1.2 Design features（定（定义特征）特征）Design features Design features refer to those features which can define our h
9、uman languages.They are devised to distinguish the communication system as possessed by human,which we term language,from communication systems as possessed by other life forms.（1）Arbitrariness By arbitrarinessarbitrariness we mean that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particula
10、r sound and the meaning it is associated with.In animal communication systems,there are no arbitrary relations.e.g.In the 8-figure dance that a bee uses to indicate the honey source,there are fixed patterns(the direction of the bees head and the way that it dances indicate the quantity and distance
11、of the honey source)蜜蜂是靠太阳来辨别方向的蜜蜂是靠太阳来辨别方向的.在一天中在一天中,蜜蜂舞蹈的方向是随着蜜蜂舞蹈的方向是随着时间不同而变化的时间不同而变化的.蜜蜂是依靠蜂房、采蜜地点和太阳三个点蜜蜂是依靠蜂房、采蜜地点和太阳三个点来定位的来定位的.蜂房是三角形的顶点蜂房是三角形的顶点,而顶点角的大小是由两条线来而顶点角的大小是由两条线来决定的：一条是从蜂房到太阳决定的：一条是从蜂房到太阳,另一条是从蜂房到采蜜地点的另一条是从蜂房到采蜜地点的直线直线,这两条线所夹的角叫这两条线所夹的角叫“太阳角太阳角”,是蜜蜂的是蜜蜂的“方向盘方向盘”.蜜蜂向左先飞半个小圈蜜蜂向左先飞半
12、个小圈,又倒转过来向右再飞半个小圈又倒转过来向右再飞半个小圈,飞行路飞行路线就像个线就像个“8”字字.可是可是,蜜蜂有时从上往下飞蜜蜂有时从上往下飞,有时从下朝上飞有时从下朝上飞,而飞行直线同地面垂直线的夹角而飞行直线同地面垂直线的夹角,相等于太阳角相等于太阳角.蜜蜂正是从这蜜蜂正是从这种角度的大小来确定采蜜地点和方向的种角度的大小来确定采蜜地点和方向的.如果蜜蜂跳如果蜜蜂跳“8”字舞时字舞时,头朝上直飞头朝上直飞,太阳角是零度太阳角是零度,意思是说：意思是说：“朝太阳方向飞去朝太阳方向飞去,就是采蜜的方向就是采蜜的方向.”如果蜜蜂跳如果蜜蜂跳“8”字舞时字舞时,头朝地直飞头朝地直飞,太阳角是
13、太阳角是180,意思是说：意思是说：“背太阳方向飞去背太阳方向飞去,就是采蜜的地方就是采蜜的地方.”如果蜜蜂跳如果蜜蜂跳“8”字舞时字舞时,飞行直线同地面垂直线的左面夹角飞行直线同地面垂直线的左面夹角是是15角角,意思是说：意思是说：“向左太阳角向左太阳角60方向飞去方向飞去,就是采蜜的地就是采蜜的地方方.”Onomatopoeic words,as direct imitations of natural sounds,are not in conflict with this feature.e.g.a Chinese dog barks 汪汪汪,while an English dog
14、barks bowwow.Although they describe the same sound,the forms are different.Arbitrariness can also be demonstrated on the syntactic level.e.g.for this sentence“小羊上山吃草”,which has only six Chinese characters,at least eight new sentences with distinctive meanings can be derived by altering the sequence
15、of these characters.小羊上山吃草。小羊山上吃草。小羊吃山上草。小羊吃上山草。小羊吃草上山。小羊吃草山上。小山上羊吃草。小山上草羊吃。羊吃山上小草。羊吃小山上草。羊吃小草山上。羊上山吃小草。羊山上吃小草。山上吃草羊小。小山上吃羊草。吃草小羊山上。小山羊吃上草。小山羊吃草上。吃草山上小羊。羊吃小草上山。Questions1.Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic?2.Do you think that onomatopoeic indicates a non-arbitrary relation
16、ship between form and meaning?3.Could the sentence“As the night fell,the wind rose”be expressed as“As the wind rose,the night fell”?If not,why?Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order?Answers2.Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word im
17、itates.Just as what is said in Chapter One,in order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes,there are many choices like“murmurous”and“murderous”.They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound,but“murmurous”is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while“murderous”is chosen to m
18、ean something quite different.They are arbitrary as signifiers.Answers3.No,these two parts cannot interchange.Yes,it is a case in point to illustrate non-arbitrariness about word order.When the two parts interchange,the focus and the meaning of the sentence is forced to change,because clauses occurr
19、ing in linear sequence without time indicators will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening.The writers original intention is distorted,and we can feel it effortlessly by reading.That is why systemic-functionalists and American functionalists think language is not arbitrary at the synt
20、actic level.2.Duality By dualityduality we mean that each language is organized at two levels or layers,one is sound and the other is meaning.The advantage of this division is that we can use limited number of sounds to produce unlimited number of sound combinations with distinctive meanings.e.g.in
21、the language of English we use around 48 sounds to produce almost infinite number of sound combinations(words).This feature is very economical for the system of language.QuestionsDoes the traffic light system have duality?Can you explain by drawing a simple graph?AnswersTraffic light does not have d
22、uality.Obviously,it is not a double-level system.There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further.So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals calls.3.Creati
23、vity By creativity we mean that speaker of a language can understand utterances that they have never heard before,and also at the same time produce new expressions,on the basis of the duality and recursiveness of language.e.g.for this sentence A red-eyed elephant is dancing on hotel bed,even if it i
24、s the first time that you ever meet this expression,and this phenomenon may never occur in the real word,you have no difficulty in understanding it.QuestionsThe recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for creativity of language.Can you write a recursive sentence following the examp
25、le in section 1.3.3?AnswersToday I encoutered an old friend who was my classmate when I was in elementary school where there was an apple orchard in which we slid to select ripe apples that4.Displacement By displacement displacement we mean that language can be used to communicate about things that
26、are not present in our immediate communicational context.This feature enables speakers to communicate free of the barriers caused by time and space.It also gives human beings the ability to generalize and abstract.5.Cultural transmission It refers to the fact that details of the linguistic system mu
27、st be learned anew by each speaker.Language is not transmitted biologically from generation to generation.e.g.A Chinese-American child brought up in the States may not be able to say one single Chinese word if he is not purposefully taught to speak Chinese,he can only speak English.Jakobsons framewo
28、rk of language functions1.1.We use language to talk about our experience of the world,including the world We use language to talk about our experience of the world,including the world in our own minds,to describe events and states and entities involved in them.in our own minds,to describe events and
29、 states and entities involved in them.(ideational function)(ideational function)2.2.We also use language to interact with other people,to establish and maintain We also use language to interact with other people,to establish and maintain relations with them,to influence their behavior,to express our
30、 own viewpoint relations with them,to influence their behavior,to express our own viewpoint on things in the world,and to elicit and change theirs.on things in the world,and to elicit and change theirs.(interpersonal function)(interpersonal function)3.3.Finally,we organize our messages in ways which
31、 indicate how they fit in with Finally,we organize our messages in ways which indicate how they fit in with the other messages around them and with the wider context in which we are the other messages around them and with the wider context in which we are talking or writing.talking or writing.(textu
32、al function)(textual function)Functions of language 1.InformativeThe use of language to record facts,to state what things are like,and to exchange information.It is also called ideational function in Hallidays terms.This serves as the primary function of language.2.Interpersonal Function The most im
33、portant sociological use of language,which serves to establish and maintain peoples status in a society.Expressions such as“Morning!”,“Hello,Mr.White.”will show the speakers as well as the addressers relationships in the society.3.Performative Function Language can be used to do things(Austin and Se
34、arle),to change the social status or the immediate state of affairs of people.e.g.in Western countries,when the priest says:“I thereby pronounce you husband and wife.”The marriage status of the couple is recognized legally.4.Emotive Function Language can be used to express the emotional state of the
35、 speaker.e.g.exclamation.The expressions of gratitude and apology are also examples of this function.5.Phatic Communion Ritual exchanges,exchanges that have little meaning but help to maintain our relationships with other people.e.g.Speaker A:Whats up?“Speaker B:Hey,man,hows it going?(And each just
36、walks on.)6.Recreational Function Word play,word for words sake,the use of language to have fun.e.g.Tongue twisters such as she sells sea-shells on the sea-shore,and the shells that she sells on the sea-shore are sea-shells is uttered only for the sheer joy of language.The Chinese crosstalk and mini
37、comedy also belong to this category of language use.7.Metalingual Function Language can be used to explain or describe itself or other languages.e.g.Man is bipedal hairless primate.Man is a noun.It is composed of 3 phonemes.Main branches of linguistics Important distinctions1.Descriptive vs.prescri
38、ptive2.Synchronic vs.diachronic3.Langue vs.parole4.Competence vs.performanceDescriptive vs.prescriptive The descriptivedescriptive study of language is to record linguistic phenomena or rules,to study language as a social phenomenon.The prescriptiveprescriptive study of language is to state that cer
39、tain linguistic phenomena or rules should or should not be obeyed,like a grammar book does.Linguists usually use the first method in their study of language.Synchronic vs.diachronic SynchronicSynchronic study of language takes a fixed instant as its point of observation.Diachronic Diachronic study e
40、xamines language through the course of time.It studies the development or history of language.Langue and parole Saussure made the distinction between languelangue and paroleparole.LangueLangue describes linguistic competence as a system of conventions and rules,which language users must master and o
41、bey when they use language.It is a social phenomenon,an abstraction shared by all the speakers within a speech community.ParoleParole is the actual speaking of language by an individual speaker.It is an individual linguistic phenomenon.LangueLangue is the set of conventions and rules which language
42、users all have to abide by,paroleparole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.LangueLangue is abstract,paroleparole is concrete.LangueLangue is relatively stable,while paroleparole varies from person to person,from situation to situation.Competence&performance Choms
43、kys competencecompetence refers to an ideal speakers knowledge of the underlying system of rules in a language.It stresses the psychological or mental property of language.PerformancePerformance refers to the actual use of the language by a speaker in a real communicational context.It is the external realization of the internal linguistic competence.Communicative competence Communicative competence is proposed by Dell Hymes,it refers to what a language user knows about how a language is used in particular situations for effective and appropriate communication.
