番茄花园-Chapter2ManagingAcrossCultures.ppt

1,Chapter 2 Managing Across Cultures,Chapter 2(1) _ Global Culture2 Chapter 2(2) _ Multicultural Teams11 Chapter 2(3) _ Motivation in a Global Context36 Chapter 2(4) _ Decision Making51 Chapter 2(5) _ Leadership68 Chapter 2(6) _ Global HRM92,2,Chapter 2(1) _Global Culture,3,CULTURAL MESSAGES COME FROM MULTIPLE SOURCES,Domestic International Global although most common challenges are addressed by nations, a global civil society is emerging,4,PEOPLE LOOK AT ALTERNATIVE ENTITIES FOR CULTURAL DIRECTION,Affiliative groups e.g., ethnic groups Nongovernmental organizations, e.g., the Womens League for Peace and Freedom Religious groups Regional associations, e.g., Economic Union Business organizations,5,Multiple messages and sources create CONFUSION AND UNCERTAINTY,Leading to new questions national cultures are less well able to answer but In a global society, we dont have a sense of the appropriate rules by which all can live,6,TRANSITION TIME?,Are we at a point where nationality is less important to culture than in the past?,All of Us,7,WE SEE THAT SOME VALUES ARE COVERGING, OTHERS ARE NOT,The Planet Project The Roper Poll of Values The World Values Survey The GLOBE Project,8,GLOBE RESPONSES ON GENDER EGALITARIANISM SHOWS COVERGENCE ON “SHOULD BE”,9,GLOBE RESPONSES ON HUMANE ORIENTATION ALSO SHOWS COVERGENCE ON “SHOULD BE”,10,QUESTIONS OF GLOBAL AND LOCAL CULTURES,Will global culture replace or exist with local cultures? Will global culture bring positive or negative outcomes?,11,Chapter 2(2)- Multicultural Teams,12,Two or more interacting individuals who come together to achieve some objectives. Groups can be either formal or informal, and further subclassified into command, task, interest, or friendship categories.,Group,13,A specific type of group where an emphasis is put on some level of member interdependence and on achievement of common goals,Team,All teams are groups Some groups are just people assembled together Teams have task interdependence whereas some groups do not (e.g., group of employees enjoying lunch together),14,Reasons for Team Popularity,Outperform individuals on tasks requiring multiple skills, judgment, and experience Better utilization of employee talents More flexible and responsive to changing events Facilitate employee participation in operating decisions Effective in democratizing the organization and increasing employee involvement and motivation,15,16,Cohesiveness,Social-Oriented Cohesiveness: The degree to which members of the group are attracted to each other and motivated to stay in the group Task-Oriented Cohesiveness: The degree to which group members work together, cooperate and coordinate their activity in order to achieve group goals,17,Team Effectiveness Model,18,Groups Across Cultures,Two cultural dimensions are especially relevant: Individualism-Collectivism Power Distance Also Uncertainty Avoidance; e.g., potential for Role Conflict (esp. in multi-functional teams),19,The Challenge in Shaping Team Players,Greatest where. The national culture is highly individualistic Introduced into organizations that historically value individual achievement,Less demanding. Where employees have strong collectivist values, such as Japan or Mexico In new organizations that use teams as their initial form for structuring work,20,Cross-Cultural Differences,Crosscultural differences in intergroup processes Collectivistic cultures Expect little expression of conflict; favor suppressing conflict Prefer to personalize interaction; focus on people, despite what group they represent Group membership is an important part of identity and interaction,21,Power Distance and SDWTs,Nicholls et al. (1999) study of SDWT in Mexico: Why are teams failing in a highly collectivist culture such as Mexico? Major challenges in implementing SDWTs Workers expect to exercise little control over work and not to be involved in decision making Expect clear instructions from the top and are not highly motivated by opportunity to initiate and take larger responsibility Can SDWT work in high-PD cultures? How?,22,Interpersonal Relationships,Individualists tend to have more friends, but with lesser intensity level; Collectivists tend to have less friends, but with higher intensity level. Individualists are less suspicious towards out-group members and easier to make initial contact; Collectivists have stronger bonds with in-group members,23,Differential Group Processes,Conformity: who is more conforming? Formal/regulated participation vs. spontaneous Social loafing versus social striving Preferences for group vs. individual rewards Equality (you deserve what you get) vs. Equity (you get what you deserve) vs. Need based decisions (to all according to their needs),24,Conformity,Crosscultural variations in tendency to accept group pressure for conformity to group norms Japanese encourage high conformity to norms of a group that has the person's primary loyalty German students (in some experimental research) showed a lower tendency to conform Moderate conformity among people in Hong Kong, Brazil, Lebanon, and the United States,25,Teams Cultural Composition,Cultural Diversity: the number of different cultures represented in the group; Cultural Norms: the orientations of the specific cultures represented in the group toward group dynamics and processes; and Relative Cultural Distance: the extent to which group members are culturally different from each other,26,Surface and Deep Diversity,In multicultural teams, diversity can be in the form of: Surface-level (black-American; Caucasian-American; French and Vietnamese) and/or Deep-level (Irish and English; Singaporean and Chinese; N. and S. Africans),27,Dynamics of Team Diversity,Diversity Surface Deep,Affective Reactions Cohesion Satisfaction Commitment,Team Behaviours Communication Conflict Cooperation,Long-term Conseq. Performance Promotion Turnover,Group Dynamics,Social Context,Org. Context,28,Jackson, Joshi & Erhardt (2003),Surface-level diversity has more immediate impact and is influential in early-stage/newly formed teams while deep-level becomes more important over time and its effects last longer. Diversity, in general, and cultural/ethnic diversity in particular, have mixed effects on team processes and performance; Less effect on simpler, motor-based tasks; more effect on complex, interdependent teamwork,29,Earley & Mosakowski (2000),Studied effects of heterogeneity in transnational teams using experimental and field settings Reasoned that the effects of national heterogeneity on team performance is non-linear; Found that in the early stages, homogenous teams (those with only one major national group identity) outperformed both moderately heterogeneous (groups with two different sub-group identities) and highly heterogeneous (no clear sub-group identities exist) teams.,30,Earley & Mosakowski (2000),In the longer term, high-heterogeneous teams performance increased as they managed to create a hybrid-culture; Such hybrid culture was not created in moderately heterogeneous teams, whose performance was lower than both high and low heterogeneity teams. Team processes mediated the effects of heterogeneity on team performance, such that: In homogenous groups, members perceived many similarities between themselves (remember SIT?); trust, shared mental models and open communication developed early on in the teams life,31,Earley & Mosakowski (2000),In moderately heterogeneous teams, a dynamic of us vs. them prevailed, with the two sub-groups sticking to themselves in times of conflict, resulting in little cross sub-group cooperation; In highly heterogeneous teams, as time passed, members go to know each other better and since there were no dominant sub-groups, they were free to form a hybrid culture-unique to their team and overarching each members national identity. Implications for joint ventures and projects where two cultures (national or organizational) get together to try to create a cooperative structure,32,Diversity and Teams,Overall, diversity causes process losses Can be beneficial if team overcomes these losses over time Depends on organizational culture and top-management support Highly heterogeneous and highly homogenous teams work better than mid-range ones Fault lines in teams lead to rivalry coalitions = decrease effectiveness,33,Conditions for Effectiveness,34,Some Implications,Investment in diverse teams is more sensible for the longer-term, for complex tasks and when team members are (relatively) pluralistic More careful task design is needed Positive feedback, early on Preparation and training, through conceptual and experiential approaches is recommended Strive to create a third culture through superordinate goals and neutralization of differences,35,Diversity: Beyond the Obvious,Seemingly culturally similar team members may have the hardest time to get along: need to take into account other variables besides culture (history, class) Idiosyncratic cultural variables, e.g., intellectual style (Russians vs. N. Americans) Prior experience with different cultures plays important role (usually for the better) Virtual Teams: added complexity,36,Chapter 2(3)-Motivation in a Global Context,37,The Basic Motivation Process,Introduction to Motivation,Motivation Psychological process through which unsatisfied wants or needs lead to drives that are aimed at goals or incentives,38,Introduction to Motivation,Need Theories Cognitive theories Expectancy theory: describes internal processes of choice among different behaviors Equity theory: describes how and why people react when they feel unfairly treated Goal setting theory: focuses on how to set goals for people to reach Behavioral theory Behavior modification: focuses on observable behavior, not internal psychological processes,39,Basic Assumptions,The Universalist Assumption All people are motivated to pursue goals they value Specific content of the goals that are pursued will be influenced by culture Movement toward market economies may make motivation more similar in different countries,40,41,Attitudes and Personality,Personality characteristics People in individualistic cultures (United States) have stronger need for autonomy than people in grouporiented cultures (Japan) People in cultures that emphasize avoiding uncertainty (Belgium, Peru) have stronger need for security than people in cultures that are less concerned about avoiding uncertainty (Singapore, Ireland),42,Need Theories of Motivation,Concept of needs holds across cultures People from different cultures may express and satisfy needs differently Importance of needs in Maslow's need hierarchy United States: selfactualization Latin America: security, affiliation France and Germany: need for security New Zealand: belongingness and love McClelland: needs for affiliation, power and achievement,43,International Aspects of Job Design,Herzberg: Two Factor Theory Individual and groupbased job design U.S. managers have mostly used individual approaches to job design Recent shifts to groupbased approaches Managers in other industrialized countries have mainly emphasized groupbased job design,44,Job Design (Cont.),Changing specific job characteristics Belgium, Mexico, Greece, Thailand: not likely to accept efforts to increase autonomy and task identity French managers particularly dislike recommendations to decentralize decision authority. Subordinates do not expect them to do so Quality circles: big success in Japan, but only partial in the US,45,Cognitive and Behavioral Theories of Motivation,Two assumptions that could restrict use of these theories outside the U.S. Individual controls decisions about future actions Manager can deliberately shape the behavior of people,46,Cognitive and Behavioral Theories of Motivation,Both assumptions reflect U.S. values of free will, individualism, individual control Cultural contrasts Muslim managers believe something happens mainly because God wills it to happen Hong Kong Chinese believe luck plays a role in all events,47,Cognitive and Behavioral Theories,Expectancy theory's validity in other cultures Japanese female life insurance sales representatives responded to commission system as expected Russian textile workers Linked valued extrinsic rewards to worker performance Productivity increased as the theory predicts Generally, expectancy theory best explains motivation of people in cultures that emphasize internal attribution,48,Cognitive and Behavioral Theories (Cont.),Equity theory: complex crosscultural effects Reward allocation decisions followed equity theory premises in U.S., Russian, and Chinese samples Other studies Chinese emphasized seniority in their reward decisions more than Americans. Eastern European transition economies: endorsed positive inequity more than American students,49,Culture & Motivation,Research on goal setting theory in several countries Results consistent with U.S. work that formulated the theory Some cultural differences U.S. students not affected by how goals were set Israeli students performed better when goals were set participatively; consistent with culture of cooperation,50,Idiosyncratic Factors,Beyond cultures variance along the major cultural value dimensions, there are specific aspects anchored in nations history and expressed through its symbols and language.,Ignoring such factors may render motivational techniques ineffective or even result in de-motivation; e.g.: Slay the Dragon!,51,Chap 2(4)- Decision Making across Cultures,52,Decision Making,Process of choosing a course of action among alternatives,53,Various Factors,* Time Orientation Deciding for the short/long term? How long to make a decision? Polichronic or monochronic style? * Who decides: Groups vs. Individuals * Voting vs. Consensus based decisions * Process: Participative vs. Autocratic,54,Value of Rationality,Strong preference for rational D.M. vs. Occasional or low value on rationality; In some cultures more emphasis on: Emotions Religion Ideology,55,Rational Decision Making,The Rational Approach assumes that Managers follow a systematic, step-by-step process. Organization is economically based and is managed by decision makers who are entirely objective and have complete information. It assumes that rational choices are: Consistent Value-maximizing Within specified constraints,56,The Six-Step Rational Decision-Making Model,1. Define the problem 2. Identify decision criteria 3. Weight the criteria 4. Generate alternatives 5. Rate each alternative on each criterion 6. Compute the optimal decision,57,Cultural Contingencies in Decision Making,58,Case Study: The Road to Hell (p. 512),What mistakes did John Baker Made? Why did he not realize his mistake when it occurred? What would you recommend that Baker do now? What do you learn from this case about human resource management across different nations?,59,Stages of Moral Development,Level,Stage Description,Principled,Conventi