《新编简明英语语言学教程》1-6章期末复习.doc.pdf

Chapter one Introduction 1.1什么是语言学 丄定义 语言学 Linguistics Lin guistics is gen erally defi ned as the scientific study of la nguage. 1.1.2The scope of linguistics 语言学分支必考 P2 普通语言学General Linguistics The study of Ianguage as a whole is often called General linguistics. The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. （语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （咅 位学） The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态 学） The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax （句法 学） The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学） The study of mea ning in con text of use is called pragmatics ?（语用学） 1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics 成对的概念辨析差异必考 P3 （1） Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写 If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive? The task of linguists is supposed to describe the Ianguage people actually use, whether it is “correct“ or not. 规定性 Prescriptive It aims to lay down rules for “correct“ behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say. 描述性 Descriptive A linguistic study describes and analyzes the Ianguage people actually use? （2） Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时 The description of a Ianguage at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a lang uage as it cha nges through time is a diachr onic study .In modern linguistics, syn chr onic study is more important? 历时语言学Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time? a diachronic study of Ianguage is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 共时语言学Synchronical linguistics The study of a given Ianguage at a given time. （3） Speech and writing 口头语与书面语 Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of Ianguage as primary, but not the written form? Reasons are: 1? Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many Ianguages that have only the spoken form; 3? In terms of function, the spoken Ianguage is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written. （4） Langue and parole语言和言语必考名解 P4 The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between Iangue and parole early 20th cen tury. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use?Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study?He believes what linguists should do is to abstract Ian gue from parole, to discover the regularities go ver ning the actual use of la nguage and make them the subjects of study of linguistics? 语言 langue （抽象） The abstract lin guistic system shared by all members of a speech comm unity. 言语 parole （具体） The realization of langue in actual use? （5） Competence and performance语言能力和语言运用 Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950's? He defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language, and performanee the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules? 语言能力 Competence （抽象） Compete nee is the ideal user's kno wledge of the rules of his language ? 语言运用 performance （具体） Performanee is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。 （6） Traditional grammar and modern linguistics 传统语法和现代语法 It is gen erally believed that the begin ning of modern linguistics was marked by the publicati on of F ? de Saussure's book “Course in General Linguistics“ in the early 20 th century? Before that is traditional grammar. Differences between traditional grammar and modern linguistics: Modern linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Modern linguistics regards the spoken Ianguage as primary, not the written. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force Ianguages into a Latibased framework. （Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language date. 现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。 traditional grammar is prescriptive, it is based on' high 7 written Ianguage.彳专统语法是规定性 的，研 究' 高级' 书面语。 ) 1? 2什么是语言 1.2.1定义 语言 Ianguage： Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语 言是人类用來交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 1.2.2 Design features of language 必考 P8 It refers to the defining properties of human Ianguage that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness 任意性 Productivity 多产性 ( 创造性 ) Duality 双重性 Displacement 移位性 Cultural transmission 文化传递 (1) arbitrari ness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds? P.S the arbitrary nature of Ianguage is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for Ianguage to have an unlimited source of expressions (2) Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels? Displacement Lan guage can be used to refer to con texts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. (5)Cultural transmission Human capacity for Ianguage has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any Ianguage system? this showed that language is culturally transmitted? not by instinct, animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species? 1.2.3 Functions of language 语言的功能 Descriptive function, expressive function, social function Six eleme nts of a speech eve nt specified by Jakobs on: Addresser - Emotive 感情功能 Addressee -Conative 意动功能 Context - Referential 所指功能 Message - Poetic 诗歌功能 1? iips 2.teeth 3.teeth ridge ( alveolus) 4.hard palate 5? soft palace (velum) 6. uvula 7? np of tongue blade of tongue 9? back of tongue 10? vocal cords 11? pharyngeal cavity 12. nasal cavity 腭 后 唇 软 舌 ? ? ? 15 9 发音器官 2齿3 ?齿? 丄小舌7 ?舌尖 10. 声带11咽腔 4 ?硬 腭 8. 舌面 Contact- Phaticcommunion 寒暄功自呂Code - Metalinguistic 无语言功能 Chapter Two Phonology 2.2 Phonetics ( 语音学 ) 2.2.1定义 Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's Ianguages? 是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音 2.2.2 Organs of speech 3 个区域：the pharyngeal cavity 咽腔? the throat, the oral cavity 口腔-the mouth, nasal cavity 鼻腔? the nose 清音 Voiceless When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart Jetting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds. 浊音 Voicing Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds. 12 2.2.3宽式音标和严式音标 宽式音标Broad transcription The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only. 严式咅标Narrow transcription The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics. 送气 Aspirated 不送气 Unaspirated 2.2.4Classification of English speech sounds 英语语音的分类 Vowel and consonant 元音辅音 Vowel The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels. Classification of English consonants a: in terms of the manners of articulation（发音方式）： Stops（爆破音） : pb td kg 6 Fricatives（摩擦音 ）:/f/v/ /（）/ they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, E.g. a) Number: tables apples cars b) Pers on, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talki ng/talked c) Case: Joh n/Joh n's 派生词 Derivation 复合词 Compounds Chapter Four Syntax 句法学 句法学 Syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. ( 句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如何支配句子 构成规则的一个语言学分支) Phrase categories and their structures 短语分类与结构 Phrase categories- the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as noun phrase: NP (N), verb phrase: VP (V), adjective phrase: AP (A), and prepositional: PP (P). The structure: specifier + head + complement Head ( 丨卩丿卜语 ) ?一the word around which a phrase is formed Spec讦 ier （标志成分）?the words on the left side of the heads Complement （补足成分）?the words on the right side of the heads Phrase structure rules: The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as: NP （Det 限定词） + N + （PP ）e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls. VP （Qual 修饰词） + V + （NP） e.g. always play games, finish assignments. AP （Deg 程度词） + A + （PP ）very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to PP （Deg） + P + （NP）on the shelf in the boat, quite near the station STNP VP （A sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase） Do insertion: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position. 句法类型Syntactic category A word or phrase that performs a particular grammatical function such as the subject or object. 表层 结构 S-structure A level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement. 深层结构 D-structure A level of syntactic representation before the operation of necessary syntactic movement. 普遍语法General grammar A system of linguistic knowledge which consists of some general principles and parameters about nature Ianguage. NP ' the student who likes linguistics' consists of Det, N and S with Det being the Spec 讦 ier ,N the head, S the complement. NP （-）W 冠词、名词和子句组成 , 冠词是指示语，名词是核心词, 子句是补 足语。 4.6.5 Move a and constraints on transformations ci 位移和转换的限制必考 （定义和作 用） This general rule is referred to as Move a , where “alpha“ is a cover term for any element that can be moved from one place to another. （我也不知道作用是啥，就会用） 这章重点就是画图 Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学 Semantics: the study of meaning from the linguistic point of view （对意义白勺研究）同义 词 Synonymy It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms. 多义词 Polysemy It refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. 同音（形）界义 Homonymy It refers to the phenome non that words have d iff ere nt mea nings have the same form, j.e, differ ent words are ide ntical in sound or spelli ng, or in both. 上下义关系 Hyponymy It refers to the sense relati on between a more general, more in elusive word and a more spec 讦 ic word? the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. 反义词 Antonymy It' s the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension. 预设 Presupposition It' s a sema ntic relati on ship or logical conn ecti on. A presupposes B?蕴涵 Entailment Entailment can be illustrated by the following tow sentences in which sentence A entails sentence B. A: Mark married a blonde heiress? B: Mark married a blonde? 句子间 tl 勺意义关系sense relation between sentences X is synonymous with Y. 互为同义、同对错 X entails Y. 包含关系? X包含 Y X presupposes Y. 假设、推测由 X推测出 Y X is a contradiction. 矛盾句 X is semantically anomalous. 不等逻辑、错误逻辑 5.2.3 Contextualism语境论必考, 考啥未知 P64自己看书 5.5.1 Componential analysis 语义成分分析Componential analysis Comp on ential an alysis is a way proposed by the structure sema nticists （结构语义学） to an a lyze word meaning. The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a world can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features （语义特征）?述谓分析Predication analysis A way to an a lyze sentence mean ing. 主项（论元） argument+ （谓词） predicate Eg. （The dogs ）主项（barks）谓词. 带一个主项的述谓one-place predication Chapter 6 pragmatics 语用学 Pragmatics必考 The study of how speakers of a Ianguage use sentences to effect successful communication. The study of language in use or Ian guage comm un icati on; the study of the use of con text to make in fere nee about meaning. Pragmatics=sema ntics+con text 语境 Context It is gen erally con siderd as con stituted by the kno wledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语句 意义与话语意义Sentence meaning V.S utteranee meaning If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation, then we treat it as a sentence? If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance. Utteranee is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. 6.2 言语行为理论Speech act theory必考 P80 It， s an imports nt theory in the pragmatic study of Ian guage .it' s a philosophical explanati on of the nature of linguistic communication. it aims to answer the question ” what do we do when using language? ” The concept of causatives performatives, the locutionary act （言内行为） , the illocutionary act （言 夕卜彳亍为）, the perlocutionary act （言后行为）and the categories of illocutionary act suggested and formulated by J.R.Searle constitute the speech act theory. 言内行为Locutionary Act A locuti on ary act is the a ct of utteri ng words, phrases clauses, it' s the act of con veyi ng literal meaning by means of syntax, lexic on and phono logy ? 言外行为lllcotionary Act An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker“ s intention it' s the act performed in saying something. 言后行为Perlocutionary Act Perlocuati on ary Act is the act performed by or resulti ng from sayi ng somethi ng? it' s the consequenee of ,or the change brought about by the utteranee. Searle's classification of speech act 必考 P82 阐述性 Representativesto commit the speaker to something“ s being the Case ,to the truth of what has been said? 例词: stating, believing, swearing, hypothesizing 最有代表性， 扌旨令 ' 性 Directives一 are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something? 仮 ij 词: invitin 已 suggesting Requesting ,advising ,warning ,threatening, ordering 是特有实例 承诺' 性 Commissives ?一whe n speaki ng the speaker puts himself un der obligati on. 例词: promising, undertaking, vowing 最典型 表达类 Expressives - 一 the speaker is expressing his feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs. 例词: apologizing ,thanking, congratulating 宣告类 Declarationsthe successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality. 例句 :l now declare the meeting open/l appoint you chairman of the committee/l fire you. 这五 类 differ in their strength or force? 合作原则 （CP 原则） Principles of conversation （Co-operative principles） Proposed by Paul Grice, a logician and philosopher 数量准则 the maxim of Quantity你说的话应包含所需内容月. 不可超过内容要求 Make your contribution as informative as required; Do not make you