1、Development by Comparison and Contrast写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较lComparison and contrast are two thinking processes we constantly perform in our daily life.We might compare and contrast two cities,two products,two books,two plays or films,etc.although comparison usually indentifies similarit
2、ies and contrast points out differences,the two are structurally similar and can be discussed together.The purpose of comparing or contrasting is to understand either of the two things more clearly and,at times,to make judgments about them.写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较Subject-by-subject Pattern
3、l1.stress is caused by daily having to contend with crowds of people and restricted space.l2.Travel in rush hour can be a real headache.l3.Pollution of various kinds is the result of industrialization.l4.Cars spew toxic fumes into the atmosphere.l5.Noise bellows out from every side.l1.Here the pace
4、of life is gentle.l2.There is time to reflect on the beauty of the world.l3.In a village,life is closer to nature.The changing seasons can be clearly observed.l4.Ther is ample space for everyone,and fresh air to breathe.写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较Subject-by-subject PatternlFor Americans a lon
5、g time may be anything from forty years to forty minutes,depending on the circumstances.To an American businessman a proposal that could be completed within forty years might be too far into the future to be considered.A motorist who gets involved in a traffic accident would be in great trouble with
6、 the police if he waited twenty-four hours to report the accident.An hour would be too long a time to be late for a business appointment or a date.Americans are so time-conscious that promptness is not only a virtue;it is an obligation.写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较Subject-by-subject PatternlBut
7、 many other cultures have no such concept of a long time.During W W II,a local truck driver arrived breathlessly at military government headquarters report that a murderer was running loose in his village.Under question he told them the murder had occurred seventeen years earlier and that the murder
8、er had remained unmolested in the village all the time.In a South American city,an American was asked to present immediately his credentials to a local official and was kept waiting outside his office for almost two hours.For such people,promptness is not only unreasonable but also irritating.They o
9、ften wonder why Americans make such a fuss about it.To a South Asian person,a long time may be 1,000years,or even forever.写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较A.Americans concept of“a long time”:_.Examples:(1)_ (2)_ (3)_ Attitudes to promptness:_B.Other cultures concepts of“a long time”:_ Examples:(1)_
10、 (2)_ (3)_写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较SummarylIn subject-by-subject pattern,we discuss the two subjects separately,that is to say,we discuss all of the characteristics of subdivisions of the first subject in the first half and then present all the characteristics of the other in the second hal
11、f.The aspects examined in the two subjects should be the same and in both parts,we should follow the same logical order for each subject.写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较Point-by-point PatternlLife in the city is quite different from life in the suburbs.People living in the city are constantly expo
12、sed to the hustle and bustle of urban life.However,life in the suburbs is generally quiet and casual than that in the city.If city dwellers want to see trees and grass,they have to go to one of the public parks.On the other hand,the streets of many suburban communities are lined with trees and each
13、house has its own grassy yard.A person living in the city is close to many sources of entertainment,but a suburban dweller must go into the city for entertainment.写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较SummarylIn point-by-point patternpoint-by-point pattern,the writer compares and contrasts both subjects
14、 item after item.He structures his paragraph around points of comparison instead of subjects,moving back and forth between the subjects.The specifics of both subjects are placed close together for direct and immediate comparison and contrast,and transitions are often used so as to avoid abrupt switc
15、hing between the two subjects.lThe point-by-point pattern works best with subjects that contain a lot of points.It can bring into sharp focus the similarities and differences for the reader to see as he reads along.写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较lA brief consideration of Egyptian mythology and th
16、e mythology of the Greeks is enough to convince us of the revolution in thought that must have taken place from one age to the other.The Egyptian gods had no resemblance to anything in the real world;the Greek gods were fashioned after real Greek people.The Egyptian artists interpretations of the di
17、vine were horrid bestial shapes that combined mens heads with birds bodies or terrifying nightmares.The monstrosities of an invisible world were what the Egyptians worshiped.The Greek interpretation of divinity is not so dark a picture.写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较lThe Greeks were preoccupied w
18、ith the visible world.They found their desires satisfied in what they could actually see around them.The ancient statues of Apollo,for instance,resemble the strong young bodies of athletes contending in the Olympic Games.Generally the Greek artists found their gods in idealized beauty or intelligenc
19、e of actual human counterparts.They had no wish to create some hideous fantasy that they called god.写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较Linking deviceslA brief consideration of Egyptian mythology and the mythology of the Greeks is enough to convince us of the revolution in thought that must have taken
20、 place from one age to the other.The Egyptian gods had no resemblance to anything in the real world;the Greek gods were fashioned after real Greek people.lA brief consideration of Egyptian mythology contrasted withcontrasted with the mythology of the Greeks is enough to convince us of the revolution
21、 in thought that must have taken place from one age to the other.The Egyptian gods had no resemblance to anything in the real world,whereas,whereas the Greek gods were fashioned after real Greek people.写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较Linking deviceslThe Egyptian artists interpretations of the divi
22、ne were horrid bestial shapes that combined mens heads with birds bodies or terrifying nightmares.The monstrosities of an invisible world were what the Egyptians worshiped.The Greek interpretation of divinity is not so dark a picture.lThe Egyptian artists interpretations of the divine were horrid be
23、stial shapes that combined mens heads with birds bodies or terrifying nightmares.The monstrosities of an invisible world were what the Egyptians worshiped.The Greek interpretation of divinity stands in stands in opposition toopposition to this dark picture.写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较Linking d
24、eviceslThe Greeks were preoccupied with the visible world.They found their desires satisfied in what they could actually see around them.The ancient statues of Apollo,for instance,resemble the strong young bodies of athletes contending in the Olympic Games.lThe Greeks were preoccupied with the visib
25、le world.Unlike the Unlike the EgyptiansEgyptians,They found their desires satisfied in what they could actually see around them.The ancient statues of Apollo,for instance,resemble the strong young bodies of athletes contending in the Olympic Games.写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较Linking deviceslG
26、enerally the Greek artists found their gods in idealized beauty or intelligence of actual human counterparts.They had no wish to create some hideous fantasy that they called god.lGenerally the Greek artists found their gods in idealized beauty or intelligence of actual human counterparts.In In direc
27、t contrast to the direct contrast to the EgyptiansEgyptians,They had no wish to create some hideous fantasy that they called god.写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较SummarylLinking words and phrases can indicate contrast and clarify the shift from one side to the other.They play an important role in e
28、nsuring a smooth and coherent flow from one subject to another,or from one point to another in paragraphs.写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较 Development by Cause and Effect写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较lAt the end of the unit you will:lBe able to recognize characteristics and organizational patt
29、erns of cause and effect in paragraph writing;lBe acquainted with relevant linking devices in cause and effect writing;andlBe able to write effective paragraphs of cause and effect according to the instructions given写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较l“Cause and effect is regarded as a logical patter
30、n commonly used in explanation and argumentation,especially when we explore possible connections between an action/event and its outcome,or between causes and results of an event,action.写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较Sample 1lOne of the main complaints of city residents in the US is the lack of p
31、arking.This problem is partly caused by all the abandoned cars on the streets.It has been estimated that over one million cars are abandoned on the streets of the cities.Each year,approximately a third of those cars are removed and destroyed.The rest of the cars which are not removed take up parking
32、 spaces and make neighbourhood look run-down.A survey shows that写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较leven though the city government of Los Angeles spends about 30 million dollars to tow away and dismantle abandoned vehicles,it is always fighting a losing battle as more and more cars are constantly co
33、ming off the producing line.In Boston,on the other hand,the problem has been dealt with by a non-profit governmental agency,which uses the money from the recycling of the mental in the cars to pay for the cost of towing them.The program in Boston sounds good although it has not completely reached fi
34、nancial independence from the federal government yet.Until a truly self-sufficient program for removing old cars is developed,it will remain a serious problem.写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较Questionsl1.What is the topic of the paragraph?l2.What are the organizational characteristics of the paragr
35、aph?l3.In what kind of order are the causes presented?写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较lThis paragraph is developed around the problem of“the lack of parking”complained about by US city residents.lThe paragraph is organised on a pattern of single effect and multiple causes.After the problem is clea
36、rly presented at the beginning,the rest of the paragraph is devoted to the exploration of its causes.Altogether three major causes are discussed,from the obvious fact of the abandoned cars taking up parking spaces to the underlying financial headaches.In this way,the writing shows a logical cause-an
37、d-effect pattern,which might consequently attract more concern or efforts in the problems solution.写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较lCauseslOver a million cars are abandoned on the streets.lMore cars are constantly being produced.lBoth city governments or governmental agencies have financial headac
38、hes.lEffectlLack of parking in cities写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较SummarylThe sample paragraph presents the problem of lack of parking in some of the US cities before it goes on to explore the causes of the issue.This pattern of organization is single effect vs.multiple causes.In this pattern,y
39、ou may state the issue,i.e.the effect,right at the beginning,and then guide the reader to track down some important evidence for the causes.The causes can be traced from the most the most superficial to the deepest,写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较lFrom the most direct to the most indirect,etc.In t
40、he end,it is advisable to suggest some solution to the problem,so that the whole writing has some significance.写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较Sample 2lSince the terrorists struck the World Trade Center and the Pentagon,the Americans have been wondering how to respond to the frequent official warn
41、ing that terrorists are planning new attacks in the near future.They feel anxious and panicky because they cant calculate the odds including those of explosives or letters with anthrax.But it is critical that the presidents aides avoid any temptation to use security precautions as an excuse for poli
42、tical errors,which was already made somewhere.写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较lThere is,of course,the danger that too many warnings could become mere background noise,and that somewhere down the road the public would wind up ignoring the one that really matters.The public cannot judge on a day-to-
43、day basis whether those assessments are being made correctly.But the nation is better off frightened and informed than left happily in the dark.写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较QuestionslWhat problem is addressed in this paragraph?And in how many aspects is the cause or effect explored?lDoes this p
44、aragraph come straight to the point of cause or effect about the issue?lDoes it follow the same pattern as Sample 1?If not,what are the differences?写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较l1.The problem addressed refers to the issue of terrorist attacks.This issue has brought about at least three major as
45、pects of consequence or effect.lThe paragraph addresses the cause rather than effects right at the beginning.lNo.it follows a pattern of single cause and multiple effects.Unlike Sample 1 in which effect is addressed first and causes are traced backwards,Sample 2 states briefly at the beginning the i
46、ssue of terrorist attacks as a direct issue,and then dwells on three major effects,some factual and some predicted.写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较The terrorist The terrorist strikesstrikes(Cause)(Cause)The Americans The Americans feel very anxious feel very anxious and panicky.and panicky.The gov
47、ernment The government tends to make tends to make political errors.political errors.The public would The public would wind up ignoring wind up ignoring the one warning the one warning that really that really matters.matters.Effect 1Effect 1EffectsEffects 2 2EffectsEffects 3 3写作与修辞contrast and compa
48、rison的用法与比较Summary lYou may have noticed the difference in organization between Sample 1 and Sample 2.In Sample 2 the writer briefly presents the issue of terrorist attacks as a direct cause,and then dwells upon three major effects,from the matter-of-fact to something predicted.This is called the si
49、ngle-cause-and-multiple-effect pattern.As is observed,the writer structures his paragraph mainly around points of effects instead of causes,写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较SummarylReasoning along the logical sequence of events.Like Sample 1,transitions are also used so as to avoid abrupt idea deve
50、lopment.lThe single-cause-and-multiple-effect pattern works best with issue that turn out to be far-reaching or influential.It can bring into sharp focus the relationship between causes and effects of an issue under discussion.写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较Development by classificationlIn life,w
